Index: languages/apertium-eng/texts/consensus/eng.tagged =================================================================== --- languages/apertium-eng/texts/consensus/eng.tagged (nonexistent) +++ languages/apertium-eng/texts/consensus/eng.tagged (revision 81259) @@ -0,0 +1,29826 @@ +^Politics/Politics$ +^in/in$ +^Afghanistan/Afghanistan$ +^has/have$ +^historically/historically$ +^consisted/consist$ +^of/of$ +^power/power$ +^struggles/struggle$ +^,/,$ +^bloody/*bloody$ +^coups/coup$ +^and/and$ +^unstable/unstable$ +^transfers/transfer$ +^of/of$ +^power/power$ +^./.$ +^With/With$ +^the/the$ +^exception/exception$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^military/military$ +^junta/*junta$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^country/country$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^governed/govern$ +^by/by$ +^nearly/nearly$ +^every/every$ +^system/system$ +^of/of$ +^government/government$ +^over/over$ +^the/the$ +^past/past$ +^century/century$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^a/a$ +^monarchy/monarchy$ +^,/,$ +^republic/republic$ +^,/,$ +^theocracy/theocracy$ +^and/and$ +^communist/communist$ +^state/state$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^ratified/ratify$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^2003/2003$ +^Loya jirga/Loya jirga$ +^restructured/restructure$ +^the/the$ +^government/government$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^Islamic/Islamic$ +^republic/republic$ +^consisting/consist$ +^of/of$ +^three/three$ +^branches/branch$ +^,/,$ +^executive/executive$ +^,/,$ +^legislative/legislative$ +^and/and$ +^judicial/judicial$ +^./.$ +^Afghanistan/Afghanistan$ +^is/be$ +^currently/currently$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^President/President$ +^Hamid/Hamid$ +^Karzai/Karzai$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^was/be$ +^elected/elect$ +^in/in$ +^October/October$ +^2004/2004$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^current/current$ +^parliament/parliament$ +^was/be$ +^elected/elect$ +^in/in$ +^2005/2005$ +^./.$ +^Among/Among$ +^the/the$ +^elected/elect$ +^officials/official$ +^were/be$ +^former/former$ +^mujahadeen/*mujahadeen$ +^,/,$ +^Taliban/Taliban$ +^members/member$ +^,/,$ +^communists/communist$ +^,/,$ +^reformists/*reformists$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Islamic/Islamic$ +^fundamentalists/fundamentalist$ +^./.$ +^28%/28%$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^delegates/delegate$ +^elected/elect$ +^were/be$ +^women/woman$ +^,/,$ +^three/three$ +^points/point$ +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^the/the$ +^25%/25%$ +^minimum/minimum$ +^guaranteed/*guaranteed$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^made/make$ +^Afghanistan/Afghanistan$ +^,/,$ +^long/long$ +^known/known$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^Taliban/Taliban$ +^for/for$ +^its/prpers$ +^oppression/oppression$ +^of/of$ +^women/woman$ +^,/,$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^leading/leading$ +^countries/country$ +^in/in$ +^terms/term$ +^of/of$ +^female/female$ +^representation/representation$ +^./.$ +^Construction/Construction$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^new/new$ +^parliament/parliament$ +^building/building$ +^began/begin$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^29th/29$ +^August/August$ +^,/,$ +^2005/2005$ +^./.$ +^Although/Although$ +^literacy/literacy$ +^levels/level$ +^are/be$ +^very/very$ +^low/low$ +^,/,$ +^classic/classic$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^poetry/poetry$ +^plays/play$ +^a/a$ +^very/very$ +^important/important$ +^role/role$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Afghan/Afghan$ +^culture/culture$ +^./.$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^culture/culture$ +^has/have$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^continues/continue$ +^to/to$ +^,/,$ +^exert/exert$ +^a/a$ +^great/great$ +^influence/influence$ +^over/over$ +^Afghan/Afghan$ +^culture/culture$ +^./.$ +^Poetry/Poetry$ +^has/have$ +^always/always$ +^been/be$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^major/major$ +^educational/educational$ +^pillars/pillar$ +^in/in$ +^Iran/Iran$ +^and/and$ +^Afghanistan/Afghanistan$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^level/level$ +^that/that$ +^it/prpers$ +^has/have$ +^integrated/integrate$ +^itself/itself$ +^into/into$ +^culture/culture$ +^./.$ +^Almost/Almost$ +^every/every$ +^homeowner/*homeowner$ +^owns/own$ +^one/one$ +^or/or$ +^more/more$ +^poetry/poetry$ +^collections/collection$ +^of/of$ +^some/some$ +^sort/sort$ +^,/,$ +^even/even$ +^if/if$ +^they/prpers$ +^are/be$ +^not/not$ +^read/read$ +^often/often$ +^./.$ +^Many/Many$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^famous/famous$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^poets/poet$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^tenth/tenth$ +^to/to$ +^fifteenth/fifteenth$ +^centuries/century$ +^stem/stem$ +^from/from$ +^Khorasan/*Khorasan$ +^where/where$ +^is/be$ +^now/now$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^Afghanistan/Afghanistan$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^were/be$ +^mostly/mostly$ +^also/also$ +^scholars/scholar$ +^in/in$ +^many/many$ +^disciplines/discipline$ +^like/like$ +^languages/language$ +^,/,$ +^natural/natural$ +^sciences/science$ +^,/,$ +^medicine/medicine$ +^,/,$ +^religion/religion$ +^and/and$ +^astronomy/astronomy$ +^./.$ +^In addition to/In addition to$ +^poets/poet$ +^and/and$ +^authors/author$ +^,/,$ +^numerous/numerous$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^scientists/scientist$ +^were born/be# born$ +^or/or$ +^worked/work$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^of/of$ +^present-day/present-day$ +^Afghanistan/Afghanistan$ +^./.$ +^Aizkolaritza/*Aizkolaritza$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^name/name$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^type/type$ +^of/of$ +^wood/wood$ +^-/-$ +^chopping/*chopping$ +^competition/competition$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^are/be$ +^a/a$ +^popular/popular$ +^form/form$ +^of/of$ +^herri/*herri$ +^kirol/*kirol$ +^(/($ +^rural/rural$ +^sport/sport$ +^)/)$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^Country/Country$ +^./.$ +^Competitions/Competition$ +^are/be$ +^commonly/commonly$ +^held/hold$ +^at most/at+most$ +^festivals/festival$ +^,/,$ +^especially/especially$ +^town/town$ +^festivals/festival$ +^and/and$ +^usually/usually$ +^involve/involve$ +^at least/at least$ +^two/two$ +^individuals/individual$ +^or/or$ +^teams/team$ +^competing/compete$ +^against/against$ +^each/each$ +^other/other$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^sections/section$ +^of/of$ +^trunk/trunk$ +^are/be$ +^usually/usually$ +^beech/beech$ +^without/without$ +^visible/visible$ +^knots/knot$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^forests/forest$ +^of/of$ +^Navarre/*Navarre$ +^./.$ +^For/For$ +^competitions/competition$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^trunk/trunk$ +^sections/section$ +^closest/close$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^roots/root$ +^or/or$ +^branches/branch$ +^are/be$ +^used/use$ +^as/as$ +^they/prpers$ +^are/be$ +^of/of$ +^less/less$ +^value/value$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^timber/timber$ +^industry/industry$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^trunks/trunk$ +^are/be$ +^categorised/*categorised$ +^according to/according to$ +^their/prpers$ +^circumference/circumference$ +^using/use$ +^an/a$ +^old/old$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^measure/measure$ +^called/call$ +^ontza/*ontza$ +^,/,$ +^equivalent/equivalent$ +^to/to$ +^0.0254/0.0254$ +^m/*m$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^oinbetekoa/*oinbetekoa$ +^,/,$ +^80/80$ +^ontza/*ontza$ +^,/,$ +^kanakoa/*kanakoa$ +^and/and$ +^bigger/big$ +^ones/one$ +^are/be$ +^often/often$ +^used/use$ +^in/in$ +^wagers/*wagers$ +^;/;$ +^the/the$ +^kanaerdikoa/*kanaerdikoa$ +^,/,$ +^60/60$ +^ontza/*ontza$ +^and/and$ +^oinbikoa/*oinbikoa$ +^most/most$ +^commonly/commonly$ +^in/in$ +^bigger/big$ +^competitions/competition$ +^and/and$ +^arranged/arrange$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^row/row$ +^,/,$ +^each/each$ +^nailed/nail$ +^to/to$ +^planks/*planks$ +^for/for$ +^stability/stability$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^axes/axe$ +^are/be$ +^between/between$ +^2.4/2.4$ +^and/and$ +^2.8/2.8$ +^kg/kg$ +^heavy/heavy$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^rounded/round$ +^blade/blade$ +^and/and$ +^each/each$ +^aizkolari/*aizkolari$ +^uses/use$ +^a/a$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^them/prpers$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^competition/competition$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^logs/log$ +^are/be$ +^between/between$ +^0.5/0.5$ +^-/-$ +^0.8/0.8$ +^m/*m$ +^long/long$ +^for/for$ +^competitions/competition$ +^where/where$ +^one/one$ +^aizkolari/*aizkolari$ +^stands/stand$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^log/log$ +^and/and$ +^between/between$ +^0.8/0.8$ +^-/-$ +^1.2/1.2$ +^m/*m$ +^long/long$ +^for/for$ +^competitions/competition$ +^where/where$ +^two/two$ +^stand/stand$ +^on/on$ +^it/prpers$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^competitions/competition$ +^are/be$ +^usually/usually$ +^a/a$ +^race/race$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^finish/finish$ +^by/by$ +^however/however$ +^many/many$ +^individual/individual$ +^competitors/competitor$ +^there/there$ +^are/be$ +^but/but$ +^occasionally/occasionally$ +^they/prpers$ +^are/be$ +^done/do$ +^txandetan/*txandetan$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^relays/relay$ +^,/,$ +^where/where$ +^two/two$ +^aizkolaris/*aizkolaris$ +^form/form$ +^a/a$ +^team/team$ +^and/and$ +^relieve/relieve$ +^the other/the other$ +^once/once$ +^a/a$ +^trunk/trunk$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^chopped/*chopped$ +^through/through$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^focus/focus$ +^is/be$ +^more/more$ +^on/on$ +^stamina/*stamina$ +^than/than$ +^speed/speed$ +^compared/compare$ +^to/to$ +^other/other$ +^wood/wood$ +^-/-$ +^chopping/*chopping$ +^events/event$ +^outside/outside$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^Country/Country$ +^and/and$ +^most/most$ +^competitions/competition$ +^last/last$ +^half an hour/half an hour$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^very/very$ +^least/least$ +^but/but$ +^normally/normally$ +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^an/a$ +^hour/hour$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^held/hold$ +^with/with$ +^each/each$ +^aizkolari/*aizkolari$ +^having/have$ +^two/two$ +^helpers/*helpers$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^botilero/*botilero$ +^(/($ +^botillero/*botillero$ +^in Spanish/in Spanish$ +^)/)$ +^holds/hold$ +^the/the$ +^towel/towel$ +^and/and$ +^brings/bring$ +^new/new$ +^axes/axe$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^prestatzaile/*prestatzaile$ +^(/($ +^enseñador/*enseñador$ +^in Spanish/in Spanish$ +^)/)$ +^checks/check$ +^the/the$ +^two/two$ +^halves/half$ +^are/be$ +^fully/fully$ +^separated/separate$ +^(/($ +^they/prpers$ +^sometimes/sometimes$ +^appear/appear$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^but/but$ +^are/be$ +^still/still$ +^connected/connect$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^dictates/dictate$ +^the/the$ +^rhythm/rhythm$ +^and/and$ +^indicates/indicate$ +^where/where$ +^best/good$ +^to/to$ +^hit/hit$ +^next/next$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^a/a$ +^famous/famous$ +^competition/competition$ +^held/hold$ +^in/in$ +^1983/1983$ +^in/in$ +^Tolosa/*Tolosa$ +^,/,$ +^two/two$ +^aizkolaris/*aizkolaris$ +^called/call$ +^Jose Mari/Jose Mari$ +^Mendizabal/*Mendizabal$ +^and/and$ +^Mikel/Mikel$ +^Mindegi/*Mindegi$ +^had/have$ +^a/a$ +^wager/*wager$ +^to/to$ +^chop/chop$ +^six/six$ +^110/110$ +^ontza/*ontza$ +^trunks/trunk$ +^and/and$ +^52/52$ +^kanaerdikoa/*kanaerdikoa$ +^(/($ +^a/a$ +^total/total$ +^of/of$ +^100/100$ +^kanaerdi/*kanaerdi$ +^)/)$ +^each/each$ +^in/in$ +^less/less$ +^than/than$ +^5/5$ +^hours/hour$ +^./.$ +^Mendizabal/*Mendizabal$ +^won/win$ +^the/the$ +^competition/competition$ +^and/and$ +^2/2$ +^million/million$ +^pesetas/peseta$ +^taking/take$ +^just/just$ +^4:12/4:12$ +^hrs/*hrs$ +^,/,$ +^Mindegi/*Mindegi$ +^4:29/4:29$ +^hrs/*hrs$ +^./.$ +^But/But$ +^the/the$ +^most/most$ +^famous/famous$ +^aizkolari/*aizkolari$ +^was/be$ +^probably/probably$ +^a/a$ +^man/man$ +^nicknamed/nickname$ +^Santa/Santa$ +^Ageda/*Ageda$ +^who/who$ +^competed/compete$ +^in/in$ +^an/a$ +^epic/epic$ +^event/event$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^bullring/*bullring$ +^of/of$ +^Azpeitia/*Azpeitia$ +^in/in$ +^1903/1903$ +^./.$ +^Many/Many$ +^aizkolariak/*aizkolariak$ +^compete/compete$ +^into/into$ +^high/high$ +^age/age$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1900/1900$ +^,/,$ +^Augustin/Augustin$ +^Unanue/Unanue$ +^who/who$ +^was/be$ +^aged/age$ +^75/75$ +^at the time/at the time$ +^,/,$ +^famously/*famously$ +^chopped/*chopped$ +^a/a$ +^log/log$ +^of/of$ +^1/1$ +^m/m$ +^diameter/diameter$ +^in/in$ +^4/4$ +^hours/hour$ +^./.$ +^Famous/Famous$ +^competitions/competition$ +^often/often$ +^lead/lead$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^composition/composition$ +^of/of$ +^bertsos/*bertsos$ +^in/in$ +^honour/honour$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^event/event$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^most/most$ +^important/important$ +^modern/modern$ +^day/day$ +^competition/competition$ +^is/be$ +^probably/probably$ +^the/the$ +^Urrezko/*Urrezko$ +^Aizkora/*Aizkora$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +" +^golden/golden$ +^axe/axe$ +" +^competition/competition$ +^where/where$ +^the/the$ +^best/good$ +^aizkolaris/*aizkolaris$ +^from/from$ +^all over/all over$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^Country/Country$ +^compete/compete$ +^against/against$ +^each/each$ +^other/other$ +^individually/individually$ +^or/or$ +^in pairs/in pairs$ +^./.$ +^There/There$ +^are/be$ +^several/several$ +^categories/category$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^two/two$ +^junior/junior$ +^competitions/competition$ +^for/for$ +^people/person$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^age/age$ +^of/of$ +^23/23$ +^and/and$ +^18/18$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^competitions/competition$ +^are/be$ +^held/hold$ +^in/in$ +^different/different$ +^places/place$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^Country/Country$ +^over/over$ +^a/a$ +^period/period$ +^of/of$ +^two/two$ +^months/month$ +^to/to$ +^establish/establish$ +^a/a$ +^winner/winner$ +^./.$ +^Held/Hold$ +^since/since$ +^1997/1997$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^held/hold$ +^annually/annually$ +^since/since$ +^./.$ +^Other/Other$ +^important/important$ +^competitions/competition$ +^are/be$ +^the/the$ +^Donostiako/*Donostiako$ +^Urrezko/*Urrezko$ +^Kopako/*Kopako$ +^(/($ +" +^golden/golden$ +^cup/cup$ +^of/of$ +^San/*San$ +^Sebastián/Sebastián$ +" +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Euskal/*Euskal$ +^Herriko/*Herriko$ +^Lehen/*Lehen$ +^Maila/Maila$ +^(/($ +" +^premier/premier$ +^league/league$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^Country/Country$ +" +^)/)$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^provincial/provincial$ +^competitions/competition$ +^./.$ +^Normally/Normally$ +^the/the$ +^aizkolaris/*aizkolaris$ +^stand/stand$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^trunk/trunk$ +^sections/section$ +^but/but$ +^there/there$ +^are/be$ +^variations/variation$ +^where/where$ +^they/prpers$ +^are/be$ +^required/require$ +^to/to$ +^chop/chop$ +^a/a$ +^vertical/vertical$ +^tree/tree$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^top/top$ +^called/call$ +^zutiko/*zutiko$ +^enborra/*enborra$ +^or/or$ +" +^upright/upright$ +^trunk/trunk$ +" +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^is/be$ +^achieved/achieve$ +^by/by$ +^chopping/*chopping$ +^notches/notch$ +^into/into$ +^the/the$ +^trunk/trunk$ +^into/into$ +^which/which$ +^the/the$ +^aizkolari/*aizkolari$ +^inserts/insert$ +^a/a$ +^plank/*plank$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^then/then$ +^stands/stand$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^plank/*plank$ +^to/to$ +^reach/reach$ +^higher/high$ +^up/up$ +^,/,$ +^working/work$ +^his/prpers$ +^way/way$ +^around/around$ +^the/the$ +^trunk/trunk$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^spiral/spiral$ +^until/until$ +^he/prpers$ +^can/can$ +^chop/chop$ +^the/the$ +^top/top$ +^section/section$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^trunks/trunk$ +^are/be$ +^up to/up to$ +^6/6$ +^m/m$ +^tall/tall$ +^and/and$ +^usually/usually$ +^no/no$ +^safety/safety$ +^equipment/equipment$ +^is/be$ +^used/use$ +^up to/up to$ +^that/that$ +^height/height$ +^./.$ +^There/There$ +^is/be$ +^another/another$ +^variation/variation$ +^combining/combine$ +^the/the$ +^chopping/*chopping$ +^competition/competition$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^race/race$ +^./.$ +^Traditionally/Traditionally$ +^a/a$ +^male/male$ +^dominated/dominate$ +^sport/sport$ +^,/,$ +^women/woman$ +^have/have$ +^begun/begin$ +^to/to$ +^take part/take# part$ +^in/in$ +^aizkolari/*aizkolari$ +^competitions/competition$ +^in recent years/in recent years$ +^as/as$ +^they/prpers$ +^have/have$ +^in/in$ +^other/other$ +^traditional/traditional$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^sports/sport$ +^,/,$ +^for example/for example$ +^Itziar/Itziar$ +^Goenaga/*Goenaga$ +^,/,$ +^Kristina/Kristina$ +^Saralegi/*Saralegi$ +^and/and$ +^Maika/*Maika$ +^Ariztegi/*Ariztegi$ +^./.$ +^Wood/Wood$ +^-/-$ +^chopping/*chopping$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^profession/profession$ +^has/have$ +^a/a$ +^long/long$ +^tradition/tradition$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^Country/Country$ +^and/and$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^recorded/record$ +^since/since$ +^medieval/medieval$ +^times/time$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^profession/profession$ +^was/be$ +^important/important$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^local/local$ +^shipbuilding/*shipbuilding$ +^and/and$ +^charcoal/*charcoal$ +^burning/burn$ +^industry/industry$ +^which/which$ +^later/later$ +^also/also$ +^fed/feed$ +^the/the$ +^metal/metal$ +^-/-$ +^working/work$ +^industry/industry$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^work/work$ +^was/be$ +^carried out/carry# out$ +^by/by$ +^small/small$ +^,/,$ +^itinerant/itinerant$ +^groups/group$ +^of/of$ +^men/man$ +^living/live$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^woods/wood$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^youngest/young$ +^and/and$ +^strongest/strong$ +^usually/usually$ +^felling/*felling$ +^the/the$ +^trees/tree$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^older/old$ +^preparing/prepare$ +^the/the$ +^felled/*felled$ +^trees/tree$ +^and/and$ +^building/build$ +^the/the$ +^txondorra/*txondorra$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^mound/*mound$ +^for/for$ +^burning/burn$ +^charcoal/*charcoal$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^these/this$ +^communities/community$ +^,/,$ +^competitions/competition$ +^were/be$ +^common/common$ +^to/to$ +^establish/establish$ +^who/who$ +^the/the$ +^strongest/strong$ +^and/and$ +^fastest/fast$ +^aizkolariak/*aizkolariak$ +^were/be$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^use/use$ +^of/of$ +^large/large$ +^quantities/quantity$ +^of/of$ +^charcoal/*charcoal$ +^as/as$ +^fuel/fuel$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^many/many$ +^foundries/foundry$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Basque/Basque$ +^Country/Country$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^18th century/18th century$ +^together with/together with$ +^the/the$ +^use/use$ +^of/of$ +^wood/wood$ +^for/for$ +^shipbuilding/*shipbuilding$ +^led/lead$ +^to/to$ +^large/large$ +^areas/area$ +^of/of$ +^woodland/woodland$ +^being/be$ +^cut/cut$ +^down/down$ +^./.$ +^In time/In time$ +^,/,$ +^those/that$ +^country/country$ +^towns/town$ +^and/and$ +^valleys/valley$ +^that/that$ +^were/be$ +^famed/*famed$ +^for/for$ +^their/prpers$ +^top/top$ +^wood/wood$ +^-/-$ +^cutters/cutter$ +^turned out/turn# out$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^those that/those that$ +^have/have$ +^safeguarded/*safeguarded$ +^the/the$ +^wealth/wealth$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^forests/forest$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^popular/popular$ +^competitions/competition$ +^they/prpers$ +^were/be$ +^not/not$ +^recorded/record$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^19th century/19th century$ +^./.$ +^Interestingly/Interestingly$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^names/name$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^competitors/competitor$ +^were/be$ +^not/not$ +^recorded/record$ +^but/but$ +^referred/refer$ +^to/to$ +^by/by$ +^their/prpers$ +^place/place$ +^of/of$ +^origin/origin$ +^or/or$ +^group/group$ +^,/,$ +^for example/for example$ +" +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^Beizama/*Beizama$ +" +^,/,$ +" +^the/the$ +^son/son$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^house/house$ +^of/of$ +^Gorrizu/*Gorrizu$ +" +^,/,$ +" +^the/the$ +^group/group$ +^from/from$ +^Nuarbe/*Nuarbe$ +" +^or/or$ +" +^the one/the one$ +^from/from$ +^Beunza/*Beunza$ +^farm/farm$ +" +^./.$ +^To/To$ +^outsiders/*outsiders$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^competitions/competition$ +^where/where$ +^known/known$ +^as/as$ +^fiestas/*fiestas$ +^Euskaras/*Euskaras$ +" +^Basque/Basque$ +^fiestas/*fiestas$ +" +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Civil War/Civil war$ +^,/,$ +^Alabama/Alabama$ +^was/be$ +^not/not$ +^the/the$ +^scene/scene$ +^of/of$ +^military/military$ +^operations/operation$ +^,/,$ +^yet/yet$ +^the/the$ +^state/state$ +^contributed/contribute$ +^about/about$ +^120,000/120,000$ +^men/man$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Confederate/*Confederate$ +^service/service$ +^,/,$ +^practically/practically$ +^all/all$ +^the/the$ +^white/white$ +^population/population$ +^capable/capable$ +^of/of$ +^bearing/bear$ +^arms/arm$ +^./.$ +^Most/Most$ +^were/be$ +^recruited/*recruited$ +^locally/locally$ +^and/and$ +^served/serve$ +^with/with$ +^men/man$ +^they/prpers$ +^knew/know$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^built/build$ +^esprit/*esprit$ +^and/and$ +^strengthened/strengthen$ +^ties/tie$ +^to/to$ +^home/home$ +^./.$ +^Medical/Medical$ +^conditions/condition$ +^were/be$ +^severe/severe$ +^./.$ +^About/About$ +^15%/15%$ +^of/of$ +^fatalities/*fatalities$ +^were/be$ +^from/from$ +^disease/disease$ +^,/,$ +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^the/the$ +^10%/10%$ +^from/from$ +^battle/battle$ +^./.$ +^Alabama/Alabama$ +^had/have$ +^few/few$ +^well/well$ +^-/-$ +^equipped/equip$ +^hospitals/hospital$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^it/prpers$ +^had/have$ +^many/many$ +^women/woman$ +^who/who$ +^volunteered/*volunteered$ +^to/to$ +^nurse/nurse$ +^the/the$ +^sick/sick$ +^and/and$ +^wounded/wounded$ +^./.$ +^Soldiers/Soldier$ +^were/be$ +^poorly/poorly$ +^equipped/equip$ +^,/,$ +^especially/especially$ +^after/after$ +^1863/1863$ +^./.$ +^Often/Often$ +^they/prpers$ +^pillaged/*pillaged$ +^the/the$ +^dead/dead$ +^for/for$ +^boots/boot$ +^,/,$ +^belts/belt$ +^,/,$ +^canteens/canteen$ +^,/,$ +^blankets/blanket$ +^,/,$ +^hats/hat$ +^,/,$ +^shirts/shirt$ +^and/and$ +^trousers/trousers$ +^./.$ +^Uncounted/*Uncounted$ +^thousands/thousand$ +^of/of$ +^slaves/slave$ +^worked/work$ +^with/with$ +^Confederate/*Confederate$ +^troops/troop$ +^;/;$ +^they/prpers$ +^took care/take# care$ +^of/of$ +^horses/horse$ +^and/and$ +^equipment/equipment$ +^,/,$ +^cooked/cook$ +^and/and$ +^did/do$ +^laundry/laundry$ +^,/,$ +^hauled/*hauled$ +^supplies/supply$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^helped/help$ +^in/in$ +^field/field$ +^hospitals/hospital$ +^./.$ +^Other/Other$ +^slaves/slave$ +^built/build$ +^defensive/defensive$ +^installations/installation$ +^,/,$ +^especially/especially$ +^those/that$ +^around/around$ +^Mobile/Mobile$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^graded/*graded$ +^roads/road$ +^,/,$ +^repaired/repair$ +^railways/railway$ +^,/,$ +^drove/drive$ +^supply/supply$ +^wagons/wagon$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^laboured/*laboured$ +^in/in$ +^iron/iron$ +^mines/mine$ +^,/,$ +^iron/iron$ +^foundries/foundry$ +^and/and$ +^even/even$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^munitions/*munitions$ +^factories/factory$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^service/service$ +^of/of$ +^slaves/slave$ +^was/be$ +^involuntary/involuntary$ +^:/:$ +^their/prpers$ +^unpaid/*unpaid$ +^labour/labour$ +^was/be$ +^impressed/impress$ +^from/from$ +^their/prpers$ +^unpaid/*unpaid$ +^masters/master$ +^./.$ +^About/About$ +^10,000/10,000$ +^slaves/slave$ +^escaped/escape$ +^and/and$ +^joined/join$ +^the/the$ +^Union/Union$ +^army/army$ +^,/,$ +^along with/along with$ +^2,700/2,700$ +^white/white$ +^men/man$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1867/1867$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^congressional/*congressional$ +^plan/plan$ +^of/of$ +^Reconstruction/Reconstruction$ +^was/be$ +^completed/complete$ +^and/and$ +^Alabama/Alabama$ +^was/be$ +^placed/place$ +^under/under$ +^military/military$ +^government/government$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^freedmen/*freedmen$ +^were/be$ +^enrolled/enrol$ +^as/as$ +^voters/voter$ +^./.$ +^Numerous/Numerous$ +^white/white$ +^citizens/citizen$ +^were/be$ +^temporarily/temporarily$ +^disfranchised/*disfranchised$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^government/government$ +^suspected/suspect$ +^the/the$ +^loyalty/loyalty$ +^of/of$ +^former/former$ +^Confederates/*Confederates$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^new/new$ +^Republican/Republican$ +^party/party$ +^,/,$ +^made/make$ +^up/up$ +^of/of$ +^freedmen/*freedmen$ +^,/,$ +^Union/Union$ +^sympathisers/*sympathisers$ +^(/($ +^scalawags/*scalawags$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^northerners/northerner$ +^who/who$ +^had/have$ +^settled/settle$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^South/South$ +^(/($ +^disparagingly/*disparagingly$ +^called/call$ +^carpetbaggers/*carpetbaggers$ +^)/)$ +^took/take$ +^control/control$ +^two/two$ +^years/year$ +^after/after$ +^the/the$ +^war/war$ +^ended/end$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^called/call$ +^a/a$ +^constitutional/constitutional$ +^convention/convention$ +^in/in$ +^November/November$ +^1867/1867$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^framed/frame$ +^a/a$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^which/which$ +^conferred/confer$ +^universal/universal$ +^manhood/*manhood$ +^suffrage/suffrage$ +^./.$ +^Whites/White$ +^who/who$ +^had/have$ +^fought/fight$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^Confederacy/*Confederacy$ +^were/be$ +^disfranchised/*disfranchised$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^temporary/temporary$ +^period/period$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Reconstruction/Reconstruction$ +^Acts/Act$ +^of/of$ +^Congress/Congress$ +^required/require$ +^every/every$ +^new/new$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^ratified/ratify$ +^by a majority/by a majority$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^legal/legal$ +^voters/voter$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^state/state$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^whites/white$ +^of/of$ +^Alabama/Alabama$ +^largely/largely$ +^stayed/stay$ +^away/away$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^polls/poll$ +^./.$ +^After/After$ +^five/five$ +^days/day$ +^of/of$ +^voting/vote$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^needed/need$ +^13,550/13,550$ +^to/to$ +^secure/secure$ +^a/a$ +^majority/majority$ +^./.$ +^Congress/Congress$ +^then/then$ +^enacted/*enacted$ +^that/that$ +^a/a$ +^majority/majority$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^votes/vote$ +^cast/cast$ +^should/shall$ +^be/be$ +^sufficient/sufficient$ +^./.$ +^Thus/Thus$ +^the/the$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^went into/go# into$ +^effect/effect$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^state/state$ +^was/be$ +^readmitted/*readmitted$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Union/Union$ +^in/in$ +^June/June$ +^1868/1868$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^a/a$ +^new/new$ +^governor/governor$ +^and/and$ +^legislature/legislature$ +^were/be$ +^elected/elect$ +^./.$ +^While/While$ +^African/African$ +^Americans/American$ +^suffered/suffer$ +^from/from$ +^segregation/segregation$ +^after/after$ +^disfranchisement/*disfranchisement$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^state/state$ +^was/be$ +^diminished/diminish$ +^by/by$ +^its/prpers$ +^deliberate/deliberate$ +^suppression/suppression$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^talents/talent$ +^./.$ +^From/From$ +^1910/1910$ +^-/-$ +^1940/1940$ +^,/,$ +^tens/ten$ +^of/of$ +^thousands/thousand$ +^of/of$ +^talented/*talented$ +^African/African$ +^Americans/American$ +^migrated/migrate$ +^north/north$ +^from/from$ +^Alabama/Alabama$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Great/Great$ +^Migration/Migration$ +^to/to$ +^seek/seek$ +^jobs/job$ +^,/,$ +^education/education$ +^for/for$ +^their/prpers$ +^children/child$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^freedom/freedom$ +^from/from$ +^lynching/lynching$ +^in/in$ +^northern/northern$ +^cities/city$ +^,/,$ +^such as/such as$ +^Chicago/Chicago$ +^,/,$ +^Detroit/Detroit$ +^,/,$ +^Cleveland/*Cleveland$ +^,/,$ +^Philadelphia/Philadelphia$ +^and/and$ +^New York/New York$ +^./.$ +^There/There$ +^they/prpers$ +^built/build$ +^their/prpers$ +^own/own$ +^businesses/business$ +^,/,$ +^churches/church$ +^and/and$ +^community/community$ +^organisations/organisation$ +^,/,$ +^music/music$ +^and/and$ +^arts/art$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^began/begin$ +^to/to$ +^create/create$ +^a/a$ +^middle class/middle class$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^rate/rate$ +^of/of$ +^population/population$ +^growth/growth$ +^in/in$ +^Alabama/Alabama$ +^dropped/drop$ +^from/from$ +^20.8%/20.8%$ +^in/in$ +^1900/1900$ +^and/and$ +^16.9%/16.9%$ +^in/in$ +^1910/1910$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^9.8%/9.8%$ +^in/in$ +^1920/1920$ +^,/,$ +^reflecting/reflect$ +^the/the$ +^impact/impact$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^outmigration/*outmigration$ +^./.$ +^Disfranchisement/*Disfranchisement$ +^was/be$ +^ended/end$ +^only/only$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^mid/*mid$ +^-/-$ +^1960/1960$ +^by/by$ +^African/African$ +^Americans/American$ +^'/'$ +^leading/lead$ +^the/the$ +^Civil/Civil$ +^Rights/Right$ +^Movement/Movement$ +^and/and$ +^gaining/gain$ +^Federal/Federal$ +^legislation/legislation$ +^to/to$ +^protect/protect$ +^their/prpers$ +^voting/vote$ +^and/and$ +^civil/civil$ +^rights/right$ +^./.$ +^Albedo/Albedo$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^diffuse/diffuse$ +^reflectivity/reflectivity$ +^or/or$ +^reflecting/reflect$ +^power/power$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^surface/surface$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^ratio/ratio$ +^of/of$ +^reflected/reflect$ +^radiation/radiation$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^surface/surface$ +^to/to$ +^incident/incident$ +^radiation/radiation$ +^upon/upon$ +^it/prpers$ +^./.$ +^Its/Prpers$ +^dimensionless/*dimensionless$ +^nature/nature$ +^lets/let$ +^it/prpers$ +^be/be$ +^expressed/express$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^percentage/percentage$ +^and/and$ +^is/be$ +^measured/measure$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^scale/scale$ +^from/from$ +^zero/zero$ +^for/for$ +^no/no$ +^reflection/reflection$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^perfectly/perfectly$ +^black/black$ +^surface/surface$ +^to/to$ +^1/1$ +^for/for$ +^perfect/perfect$ +^reflection/reflection$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^white/white$ +^surface/surface$ +^./.$ +^Albedo/Albedo$ +^depends/depend$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^frequency/frequency$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^radiation/radiation$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^quoted/quote$ +^unqualified/*unqualified$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^usually/usually$ +^refers/refer$ +^to/to$ +^some/some$ +^appropriate/appropriate$ +^average/average$ +^across/across$ +^the/the$ +^spectrum/spectrum$ +^of/of$ +^visible/visible$ +^light/light$ +^./.$ +^In general/In general$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^depends/depend$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^directional/directional$ +^distribution/distribution$ +^of/of$ +^incident/incident$ +^radiation/radiation$ +^,/,$ +^except for/except for$ +^Lambertian/*Lambertian$ +^surfaces/surface$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^scatter/scatter$ +^radiation/radiation$ +^in/in$ +^all/all$ +^directions/direction$ +^according to/according to$ +^a/a$ +^cosine/*cosine$ +^function/function$ +^and/and$ +^therefore/therefore$ +^have/have$ +^an/a$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^that/that$ +^is/be$ +^independent/independent$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^incident/incident$ +^distribution/distribution$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^practice/practice$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^bidirectional/bidirectional$ +^reflectance/reflectance$ +^distribution/distribution$ +^function/function$ +^(/($ +^BRDF/BRDF$ +^)/)$ +^may/may$ +^be/be$ +^required/require$ +^to/to$ +^accurately/accurately$ +^characterise/characterise$ +^the/the$ +^scattering/scatter$ +^properties/property$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^surface/surface$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^is/be$ +^very/very$ +^useful/useful$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^first/first$ +^approximation/approximation$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^is/be$ +^an/a$ +^important/important$ +^concept/concept$ +^in/in$ +^climatology/climatology$ +^,/,$ +^astronomy/astronomy$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^calculating/calculate$ +^reflectivity/reflectivity$ +^of/of$ +^surfaces/surface$ +^in/in$ +^LEED/LEED$ +^sustainable/sustainable$ +^-/-$ +^rating/rating$ +^systems/system$ +^for/for$ +^buildings/building$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^average/average$ +^overall/overall$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^of/of$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^,/,$ +^its/prpers$ +^planetary/planetary$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^,/,$ +^is/be$ +^30/30$ +^to/to$ +^35%/35%$ +^because of/because of$ +^cloud/cloud$ +^cover/cover$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^widely/widely$ +^varies/vary$ +^locally/locally$ +^across/across$ +^the/the$ +^surface/surface$ +^because of/because of$ +^different/different$ +^geological/geological$ +^and/and$ +^environmental/environmental$ +^features/feature$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^term/term$ +^was/be$ +^introduced/introduce$ +^into/into$ +^optics/optics$ +^by/by$ +^Johann/Johann$ +^Heinrich/*Heinrich$ +^Lambert/Lambert$ +^in/in$ +^his/prpers$ +^1760/1760$ +^work/work$ +^Photometria/*Photometria$ +^./.$ +^Albedos/Albedo$ +^of/of$ +^typical/typical$ +^materials/material$ +^in/in$ +^visible/visible$ +^light/light$ +^range/range$ +^from/from$ +^up to/up to$ +^0.9/0.9$ +^for/for$ +^fresh/fresh$ +^snow/snow$ +^to/to$ +^about/about$ +^0.04/0.04$ +^for/for$ +^charcoal/*charcoal$ +^,/,$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^darkest/dark$ +^substances/substance$ +^./.$ +^Deeply/Deeply$ +^shadowed/*shadowed$ +^cavities/cavity$ +^can/can$ +^achieve/achieve$ +^an/a$ +^effective/effective$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^approaching/approach$ +^the/the$ +^zero/zero$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^black/black$ +^body/body$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^seen/see$ +^from a distance/from a distance$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^ocean/ocean$ +^surface/surface$ +^has/have$ +^a/a$ +^low/low$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^do/do$ +^most/most$ +^forests/forest$ +^,/,$ +^whereas/whereas$ +^desert/desert$ +^areas/area$ +^have/have$ +^some/some$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^highest/high$ +^albedos/albedo$ +^among/among$ +^landforms/*landforms$ +^./.$ +^Most/Most$ +^land/land$ +^areas/area$ +^are/be$ +^in/in$ +^an/a$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^range/range$ +^of/of$ +^0.1/0.1$ +^to/to$ +^0.4/0.4$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^average/average$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^is/be$ +^about/about$ +^0.3/0.3$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^is/be$ +^far/far$ +^higher/high$ +^than/than$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^ocean/ocean$ +^primarily/primarily$ +^because of/because of$ +^the/the$ +^contribution/contribution$ +^of/of$ +^clouds/cloud$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^'s/'s$ +^surface/surface$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^is/be$ +^regularly/regularly$ +^estimated/estimate$ +^via/via$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^observation/observation$ +^satellite/satellite$ +^sensors/sensor$ +^such as/such as$ +^NASA/NASA$ +^'s/'s$ +^MODIS/MODIS$ +^instruments/instrument$ +^on board/on board$ +^the/the$ +^Terra/*Terra$ +^and/and$ +^Aqua/*Aqua$ +^satellites/satellite$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^the/the$ +^total/total$ +^amount/amount$ +^of/of$ +^reflected/reflect$ +^radiation/radiation$ +^cannot/can+not$ +^be/be$ +^directly/directly$ +^measured/measure$ +^by/by$ +^satellite/satellite$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^mathematical/mathematical$ +^model/model$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^BRDF/BRDF$ +^is/be$ +^used/use$ +^to/to$ +^translate/translate$ +^a/a$ +^sample/sample$ +^set/set$ +^of/of$ +^satellite/satellite$ +^reflectance/reflectance$ +^measurements/measurement$ +^into/into$ +^estimates/estimate$ +^of/of$ +^directional/directional$ +^-/-$ +^hemispherical/hemispherical$ +^reflectance/reflectance$ +^and/and$ +^bi-hemispherical/bi-hemispherical$ +^reflectance/reflectance$ +^./.$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^'s/'s$ +^average/average$ +^surface/surface$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^due to/due to$ +^its/prpers$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^greenhouse/*greenhouse$ +^effect/effect$ +^is/be$ +^currently/currently$ +^about/about$ +^15/15$ +°^C/*C$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^the/the$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^was/be$ +^frozen/freeze$ +^entirely/entirely$ +^(/($ +^and/and$ +^hence/hence$ +^be/be$ +^more/more$ +^reflective/reflective$ +^)/)$ +^the/the$ +^average/average$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^planet/planet$ +^would/will$ +^drop/drop$ +^below/below$ +− +^40/40$ +°^C/*C$ +^If/If$ +^only/only$ +^the/the$ +^continental/continental$ +^land/land$ +^masses/mass$ +^became/become$ +^covered/cover$ +^by/by$ +^glaciers/glacier$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^mean/mean$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^planet/planet$ +^would/will$ +^drop/drop$ +^to/to$ +^about/about$ +^0/0$ +°^C/*C$ +^./.$ +^In contrast/In contrast$ +^,/,$ +^if/if$ +^all/all$ +^the/the$ +^ice/ice$ +^on/on$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^were/be$ +^to/to$ +^melt/melt$ +— +^a/a$ +^so-called/so-called$ +^aquaplanet/*aquaplanet$ +— +^the/the$ +^average/average$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^planet/planet$ +^would/will$ +^rise/rise$ +^to/to$ +^just/just$ +^under/under$ +^27/27$ +°^C/*C$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^albedos/albedo$ +^of/of$ +^planets/planet$ +^,/,$ +^satellites/satellite$ +^and/and$ +^asteroids/asteroid$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^used/use$ +^to/to$ +^infer/infer$ +^much/much$ +^about/about$ +^their/prpers$ +^properties/property$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^study/study$ +^of/of$ +^albedos/albedo$ +^,/,$ +^their/prpers$ +^dependence/dependence$ +^on/on$ +^wavelength/wavelength$ +^,/,$ +^lighting/lighting$ +^angle/angle$ +^(/($ +" +^phase/phase$ +^angle/angle$ +" +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^variation/variation$ +^in time/in+time$ +^comprises/comprise$ +^a/a$ +^major/major$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^astronomical/astronomical$ +^field/field$ +^of/of$ +^photometry/photometry$ +^./.$ +^For/For$ +^small/small$ +^and/and$ +^far/far$ +^objects/object$ +^that/that$ +^cannot/can+not$ +^be/be$ +^resolved/resolve$ +^by/by$ +^telescopes/telescope$ +^,/,$ +^much/much$ +^of/of$ +^what/what$ +^we/prpers$ +^know/know$ +^comes from/come# from$ +^the/the$ +^study/study$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^albedos/albedo$ +^./.$ +^For example/For example$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^absolute/absolute$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^can/can$ +^indicate/indicate$ +^the/the$ +^surface/surface$ +^ice/ice$ +^content/content$ +^of/of$ +^outer/outer$ +^solar system/solar system$ +^objects/object$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^variation/variation$ +^of/of$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^with/with$ +^phase/phase$ +^angle/angle$ +^gives/give$ +^information/information$ +^about/about$ +^regolith/*regolith$ +^properties/property$ +^,/,$ +^while/while$ +^unusually/unusually$ +^high/high$ +^radar/radar$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^is/be$ +^indicative/*indicative$ +^of/of$ +^high/high$ +^metallic/metallic$ +^content/content$ +^in/in$ +^asteroids/asteroid$ +^./.$ +^Enceladus/*Enceladus$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^moon/moon$ +^of/of$ +^Saturn/Saturn$ +^,/,$ +^has/have$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^highest/high$ +^known/know$ +^albedos/albedo$ +^of/of$ +^any/any$ +^body/body$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Solar system/Solar system$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^99%/99%$ +^of/of$ +^EM/EM$ +^radiation/radiation$ +^reflected/reflect$ +^./.$ +^Another/Another$ +^notable/notable$ +^high/high$ +^-/-$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^body/body$ +^is/be$ +^Eris/*Eris$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^an/a$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^of/of$ +^0.96/0.96$ +^./.$ +^Many/Many$ +^small/small$ +^objects/object$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^outer/outer$ +^solar system/solar system$ +^and/and$ +^asteroid belt/asteroid belt$ +^have/have$ +^low/low$ +^albedos/albedo$ +^down/down$ +^to/to$ +^about/about$ +^0.05/0.05$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^typical/typical$ +^comet/comet$ +^nucleus/nucleus$ +^has/have$ +^an/a$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^of/of$ +^0.04/0.04$ +^./.$ +^Such a/Such a$ +^dark/dark$ +^surface/surface$ +^is/be$ +^thought/think$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^indicative/*indicative$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^primitive/primitive$ +^and/and$ +^heavily/heavily$ +^space/space$ +^weathered/*weathered$ +^surface/surface$ +^containing/contain$ +^some/some$ +^organic/organic$ +^compounds/compound$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^overall/overall$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Moon/Moon$ +^is/be$ +^around/around$ +^0.12/0.12$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^strongly/strongly$ +^directional/directional$ +^and/and$ +^non/non$ +^-/-$ +^Lambertian/*Lambertian$ +^,/,$ +^displaying/display$ +^also/also$ +^a/a$ +^strong/strong$ +^opposition/opposition$ +^effect/effect$ +^./.$ +^While/While$ +^such/such$ +^reflectance/reflectance$ +^properties/property$ +^are/be$ +^different/different$ +^from/from$ +^those/that$ +^of/of$ +^any/any$ +^terrestrial/terrestrial$ +^terrains/terrain$ +^,/,$ +^they/prpers$ +^are/be$ +^typical/typical$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^regolith/*regolith$ +^surfaces/surface$ +^of/of$ +^airless/*airless$ +^solar system/solar system$ +^bodies/body$ +^./.$ +^Two/Two$ +^common/common$ +^albedos/albedo$ +^that/that$ +^are/be$ +^used/use$ +^in/in$ +^astronomy/astronomy$ +^are/be$ +^the/the$ +^(/($ +^V/*V$ +^-/-$ +^band/band$ +^)/)$ +^geometric/geometric$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^(/($ +^measuring/measure$ +^brightness/*brightness$ +^when/when$ +^illumination/illumination$ +^comes from/come# from$ +^directly/directly$ +^behind/behind$ +^the/the$ +^observer/observer$ +^)/)$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Bond/Bond$ +^albedo/albedo$ +^(/($ +^measuring/measure$ +^total/total$ +^proportion/proportion$ +^of/of$ +^electromagnetic/electromagnetic$ +^energy/energy$ +^reflected/reflect$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Their/Prpers$ +^values/value$ +^can/can$ +^differ/differ$ +^significantly/significantly$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^common/common$ +^source/source$ +^of/of$ +^confusion/confusion$ +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^short/short$ +^reigns/reign$ +^of/of$ +^his/prpers$ +^two/two$ +^eldest/*eldest$ +^brothers/brother$ +^,/,$ +^Æthelbald/*Æthelbald$ +^of/of$ +^Wessex/*Wessex$ +^and/and$ +^Æthelbert/*Æthelbert$ +^of/of$ +^Wessex/*Wessex$ +^,/,$ +^Alfred/Alfred$ +^is/be$ +^not/not$ +^mentioned/mention$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^his/prpers$ +^public/public$ +^life/life$ +^began/begin$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^accession/accession$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^third/third$ +^brother/brother$ +^,/,$ +^Æthelred/*Æthelred$ +^of/of$ +^Wessex/*Wessex$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^866/866$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^is/be$ +^during/during$ +^this/this$ +^period/period$ +^that/that$ +^Bishop/Bishop$ +^Asser/*Asser$ +^applies/apply$ +^to/to$ +^him/prpers$ +^the/the$ +^unique/unique$ +^title/title$ +^of/of$ +" +^secundarius/*secundarius$ +" +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^may/may$ +^indicate/indicate$ +^a/a$ +^position/position$ +^akin/akin$ +^to/to$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Celtic/Celtic$ +^tanist/*tanist$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^recognised/recognise$ +^successor/successor$ +^closely/closely$ +^associated/associate$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^reigning/reigning$ +^monarch/monarch$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^is/be$ +^possible/possible$ +^that/that$ +^this/this$ +^arrangement/arrangement$ +^was/be$ +^sanctioned/sanction$ +^by/by$ +^Alfred/Alfred$ +^'s/'s$ +^father/father$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Witan/*Witan$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^guard/guard$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^danger/danger$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^disputed/dispute$ +^succession/succession$ +^should/shall$ +^Æthelred/*Æthelred$ +^fall/fall$ +^in/in$ +^battle/battle$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^arrangement/arrangement$ +^of/of$ +^crowning/*crowning$ +^a/a$ +^successor/successor$ +^as/as$ +^royal/royal$ +^prince/prince$ +^and/and$ +^military/military$ +^commander/commander$ +^is/be$ +^well/well$ +^known/know$ +^among/among$ +^other/other$ +^Germanic/Germanic$ +^tribes/tribe$ +^,/,$ +^such as/such as$ +^the/the$ +^Swedes/*Swedes$ +^and/and$ +^Franks/*Franks$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^whom/whom$ +^the/the$ +^Anglo-Saxons/Anglo-Saxon$ +^were/be$ +^closely/closely$ +^related/relate$ +^./.$ +^Alfred/Alfred$ +^analysed/analyse$ +^the/the$ +^defects/defect$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^military/military$ +^system/system$ +^that/that$ +^he/prpers$ +^had/have$ +^inherited/inherit$ +^and/and$ +^implemented/implement$ +^changes/change$ +^to/to$ +^remedy/remedy$ +^them/prpers$ +^./.$ +^Alfred/Alfred$ +^'s/'s$ +^military/military$ +^reorganisation/reorganisation$ +^of/of$ +^Wessex/*Wessex$ +^consisted/consist$ +^of/of$ +^three/three$ +^elements/element$ +^:/:$ +^the/the$ +^building/build$ +^of/of$ +^thirty/thirty$ +^fortified/fortify$ +^and/and$ +^garrisoned/*garrisoned$ +^towns/town$ +^(/($ +^burhs/*burhs$ +^)/)$ +^along/along$ +^the/the$ +^rivers/river$ +^and/and$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^roads/road$ +^of/of$ +^Wessex/*Wessex$ +^;/;$ +^the/the$ +^creation/creation$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^mobile/mobile$ +^(/($ +^horsed/*horsed$ +^)/)$ +^field/field$ +^force/force$ +^,/,$ +^consisting/consist$ +^of/of$ +^his/prpers$ +^nobles/*nobles$ +^and/and$ +^their/prpers$ +^warrior/warrior$ +^retainers/retainer$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^was/be$ +^divided/divide$ +^into/into$ +^two/two$ +^contingents/contingent$ +^,/,$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^which/which$ +^was/be$ +^always/always$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^;/;$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^enhancement/enhancement$ +^of/of$ +^Wessex/*Wessex$ +^'s/'s$ +^seapower/*seapower$ +^through/through$ +^the/the$ +^addition/addition$ +^of/of$ +^larger/large$ +^ships/ship$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^existing/existing$ +^royal/royal$ +^fleet/fleet$ +^./.$ +^Each/Each$ +^element/element$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^system/system$ +^was/be$ +^meant/mean$ +^to/to$ +^remedy/remedy$ +^defects/defect$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^West/West$ +^Saxon/Saxon$ +^military/military$ +^establishment/establishment$ +^exposed/expose$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Viking/*Viking$ +^invasions/invasion$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^existing/existing$ +^system/system$ +^he/prpers$ +^could/can$ +^not/not$ +^assemble/assemble$ +^forces/force$ +^quickly/quickly$ +^enough/enough$ +^to/to$ +^intercept/intercept$ +^mobile/mobile$ +^Viking/*Viking$ +^raiders/*raiders$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^obvious/obvious$ +^answer/answer$ +^was/be$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^a/a$ +^standing/stand$ +^field/field$ +^force/force$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^this/this$ +^entailed/*entailed$ +^transforming/transform$ +^the/the$ +^West/West$ +^Saxon/Saxon$ +^fyrd/*fyrd$ +^from/from$ +^a/a$ +^sporadic/sporadic$ +^levy/levy$ +^of/of$ +^king/king$ +^'s/'s$ +^men/man$ +^and/and$ +^their/prpers$ +^retinues/*retinues$ +^into/into$ +^a/a$ +^mounted/mount$ +^standing/stand$ +^army/army$ +^,/,$ +^so be it/so be it$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^his/prpers$ +^kingdom/kingdom$ +^lacked/lack$ +^strongpoints/*strongpoints$ +^to/to$ +^impede/*impede$ +^the/the$ +^progress/progress$ +^of/of$ +^an/a$ +^enemy/enemy$ +^army/army$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^would/will$ +^build/build$ +^them/prpers$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^the/the$ +^enemy/enemy$ +^struck/strike$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^sea/sea$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^would/will$ +^counter/counter$ +^them/prpers$ +^with/with$ +^his/prpers$ +^own/own$ +^naval/naval$ +^power/power$ +^./.$ +^Characteristically/Characteristically$ +^,/,$ +^all/all$ +^of/of$ +^Alfred/Alfred$ +^'s/'s$ +^innovations/innovation$ +^were/be$ +^firmly/firmly$ +^rooted/root$ +^in/in$ +^traditional/traditional$ +^West/West$ +^Saxon/Saxon$ +^practice/practice$ +^,/,$ +^drawing/draw$ +^as/as$ +^they/prpers$ +^did/do$ +^upon/upon$ +^the/the$ +^three/three$ +^so-called/so-called$ +^'/'$ +^common/common$ +^burdens/burden$ +^'/'$ +^of/of$ +^bridge/bridge$ +^work/work$ +^,/,$ +^fortress/fortress$ +^repair/repair$ +^and/and$ +^service/service$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^king/king$ +^'s/'s$ +^campaigns/campaign$ +^that/that$ +^all/all$ +^holders/holder$ +^of/of$ +^bookland/*bookland$ +^and/and$ +^royal/royal$ +^loanland/*loanland$ +^owed/owe$ +^the/the$ +^Crown/Crown$ +^./.$ +^Where/Where$ +^Alfred/Alfred$ +^revealed/reveal$ +^his/prpers$ +^genius/genius$ +^was/be$ +^in/in$ +^designing/design$ +^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^force/force$ +^and/and$ +^'/'$ +^burhs/*burhs$ +^'/'$ +^(/($ +^boroughs/borough$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^these/this$ +^fortified/fortify$ +^sites/site$ +^were called/be# called$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^parts/part$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^coherent/coherent$ +^military/military$ +^system/system$ +^./.$ +^Neither/Neither$ +^Alfred/Alfred$ +^'s/'s$ +^reformed/reform$ +^fyrd/*fyrd$ +^nor/nor$ +^his/prpers$ +^burhs/*burhs$ +^alone/alone$ +^would/will$ +^have/have$ +^afforded/afford$ +^a/a$ +^sufficient/sufficient$ +^defence/defence$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^Vikings/*Vikings$ +^;/;$ +^together/together$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^they/prpers$ +^robbed/rob$ +^the/the$ +^Vikings/*Vikings$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^major/major$ +^strategic/strategic$ +^advantages/advantage$ +^:/:$ +^surprise/surprise$ +^and/and$ +^mobility/mobility$ +^./.$ +^Algeria/Algeria$ +^'s/'s$ +^first/first$ +^president/president$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^FLN/FLN$ +^leader/leader$ +^Ahmed/Ahmed$ +^Ben Bella/Ben Bella$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^was/be$ +^overthrown/*overthrown$ +^by/by$ +^his/prpers$ +^former/former$ +^ally/ally$ +^and/and$ +^defence minister/defence minister$ +^,/,$ +^Houari/*Houari$ +^Boumédienne/*Boumédienne$ +^in/in$ +^1965/1965$ +^./.$ +^Under/Under$ +^Ben Bella/Ben Bella$ +^the/the$ +^government/government$ +^had/have$ +^already/already$ +^become/become$ +^increasingly/increasingly$ +^socialist/socialist$ +^and/and$ +^authoritarian/authoritarian$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^this/this$ +^trend/trend$ +^continued/continue$ +^throughout/throughout$ +^Boumédienne/*Boumédienne$ +^'s/'s$ +^government/government$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^Boumédienne/*Boumédienne$ +^relied/rely$ +^much more/much more$ +^heavily/heavily$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^army/army$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^reduced/reduce$ +^the/the$ +^sole/sole$ +^legal/legal$ +^party/party$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^merely/merely$ +^symbolic/symbolic$ +^role/role$ +^./.$ +^Agriculture/Agriculture$ +^was/be$ +^collectivised/*collectivised$ +^,/,$ 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+^to/to$ +^flee/flee$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^large/large$ +^Germanic/Germanic$ +^force/force$ +^was/be$ +^preparing/prepare$ +^to/to$ +^cross/cross$ +^the/the$ +^Rhine/*Rhine$ +^./.$ +^Trusting/Trust$ +^Ambiorix/*Ambiorix$ +^,/,$ +^Sabinus/*Sabinus$ +^and/and$ +^Cotta/*Cotta$ +^'s/'s$ +^troops/troop$ +^leave/leave$ +^the/the$ +^next/next$ +^morning/morning$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^short/short$ +^distance/distance$ +^from/from$ +^their/prpers$ +^camp/camp$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^troops/troop$ +^were/be$ +^ambushed/*ambushed$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Eburones/*Eburones$ +^and/and$ +^massacred/*massacred$ +^./.$ +^Elsewhere/Elsewhere$ +^,/,$ +^another/another$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^force/force$ +^under/under$ +^Quintus/*Quintus$ +^Tullius/*Tullius$ +^Cicero/Cicero$ +^,/,$ +^brother/brother$ +^of/of$ +^Marcus/Marcus$ +^,/,$ +^were/be$ +^wintering/*wintering$ +^amongst/amongst$ +^the/the$ +^Nervii/*Nervii$ +^./.$ +^Leading/Lead$ +^a/a$ +^coalition/coalition$ +^of/of$ +^rebellious/rebellious$ +^Belgic/*Belgic$ +^tribes/tribe$ +^,/,$ +^Ambiorix/*Ambiorix$ +^surrounded/surround$ +^Cicero/Cicero$ +^'s/'s$ +^camp/camp$ +^./.$ +^After/After$ +^a long while/a long while$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^messenger/messenger$ +^was/be$ +^finally/finally$ +^able/able$ +^to/to$ +^slip/slip$ +^through/through$ +^the/the$ +^Belgic/*Belgic$ +^lines/line$ +^and/and$ +^get/get$ +^word/word$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^uprising/uprising$ +^to/to$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^./.$ +^Mobilising/*Mobilising$ +^his/prpers$ +^legions/legion$ +^,/,$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^immediately/immediately$ +^marched/*marched$ +^to/to$ +^Cicero/Cicero$ +^'s/'s$ +^aid/aid$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^they/prpers$ +^approached/approach$ +^the/the$ +^besieged/besiege$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^camp/camp$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Belgae/*Belgae$ +^moved/move$ +^to/to$ +^engage/engage$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^'s/'s$ +^troops/troop$ +^./.$ +^Vastly/*Vastly$ +^outnumbered/*outnumbered$ +^,/,$ +^Caeser/*Caeser$ +^ordered/order$ +^his/prpers$ +^troops/troop$ +^to/to$ +^appear/appear$ +^confused/confuse$ +^and/and$ +^frightened/frighten$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^they/prpers$ +^successfully/successfully$ +^lured/lure$ +^the/the$ +^Belgae/*Belgae$ +^to/to$ +^attack/attack$ +^them/prpers$ +^on/on$ +^ground/ground$ +^favourable/favourable$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Romans/Roman$ +^./.$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^'s/'s$ +^forces/force$ +^launched/launch$ +^a/a$ +^fierce/fierce$ +^counterattack/counterattack$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^soon/soon$ +^put/put$ +^the/the$ +^Belgae/*Belgae$ +^to/to$ +^flight/flight$ +^./.$ +^Later/Later$ +^,/,$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^'s/'s$ +^troops/troop$ +^entered/enter$ +^Cicero/Cicero$ +^'s/'s$ +^camp/camp$ +^to/to$ +^find/find$ +^most of/most of$ +^the/the$ +^men/man$ +^wounded/wound$ +^./.$ +^Meanwhile/Meanwhile$ +^,/,$ +^Indutiomarus/*Indutiomarus$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^leader/leader$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Treveri/*Treveri$ +^,/,$ +^began/begin$ +^to/to$ +^harass/harass$ +^the/the$ +^camp/camp$ +^of/of$ +^Labienus/*Labienus$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^daily/daily$ +^basis/basis$ +^,/,$ +^eventually/eventually$ +^provoking/provoke$ +^Labienus/*Labienus$ +^to/to$ +^send/send$ +^out/out$ +^his/prpers$ +^cavalry/cavalry$ +^with/with$ +^specific/specific$ +^orders/order$ +^to/to$ +^kill/kill$ +^Indutiomarus/*Indutiomarus$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^do/do$ +^so/so$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^rout/*rout$ +^the/the$ +^remnants/remnant$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^late/late$ +^Indutiomarus/*Indutiomarus$ +^'s/'s$ +^army/army$ +^./.$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^personally/personally$ +^remained/remain$ +^in/in$ +^Gaul/*Gaul$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^remainder/remainder$ +^of/of$ +^winter/winter$ +^due to/due to$ +^the/the$ +^renewed/renew$ +^Gallic/*Gallic$ +^threat/threat$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^the/the$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^Senate/Senate$ +^heard/hear$ +^what/what$ +^happened/happen$ +^,/,$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^swore/swear$ +^to/to$ +^put/put$ +^down/down$ +^all/all$ +^the/the$ +^Belgic/*Belgic$ +^tribes/tribe$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^was/be$ +^very/very$ +^important/important$ +^that/that$ +^the other/the+other$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^provinces/province$ +^know/know$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^almighty/almighty$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^republic/republic$ +^couldn't/can+not$ +^be/be$ +^beaten/beat$ +^so/so$ +^easily/easily$ +^./.$ +^After all/After all$ +^,/,$ +^Ambiorix/*Ambiorix$ +^had/have$ +^killed/kill$ +^a/a$ +^whole/whole$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^legion/legion$ +^and/and$ +^five/five$ +^cohorts/cohort$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^Belgic/*Belgic$ +^attack/attack$ +^on/on$ +^Quintus/*Quintus$ +^Cicero/Cicero$ +^(/($ +^brother/brother$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^orator/orator$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^then/then$ +^stationed/*stationed$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^legion/legion$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Nervii/*Nervii$ +^'s/'s$ +^territory/territory$ +^,/,$ +^failed/fail$ +^due to/due to$ +^the/the$ +^timely/timely$ +^appearance/appearance$ +^of/of$ +^Caesar/*Caesar$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^campaigns/campaign$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^Belgae/*Belgae$ +^took/take$ +^a few/a few$ +^years/year$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^eventually/eventually$ +^the/the$ +^Belgae/*Belgae$ +^were/be$ +^no/no$ +^match/match$ +^against/against$ +^50,000/50,000$ +^trained/train$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^soldiers/soldier$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^tribes/tribe$ +^were/be$ +^slaughtered/*slaughtered$ +^or/or$ +^driven/drive$ +^out/out$ +^and/and$ +^their/prpers$ +^fields/field$ +^burned/burn$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Eburones/*Eburones$ +^were/be$ +^history/history$ +^from/from$ +^that/that$ +^point/point$ +^./.$ +^According to/According to$ +^the/the$ +^writer/writer$ +^Florus/*Florus$ +^,/,$ +^Ambiorix/*Ambiorix$ +^and/and$ +^his/prpers$ +^men/man$ +^managed/manage$ +^to/to$ +^cross/cross$ +^the/the$ +^Rhine/*Rhine$ +^and/and$ +^disappear/disappear$ +^without a trace/without a trace$ +^./.$ +^Anarchists/Anarchist$ +^participated/participate$ +^alongside/alongside$ +^the/the$ +^Bolsheviks/Bolshevik$ +^in/in$ +^both/both$ +^February/February$ +^and/and$ +^October/October$ +^revolutions/revolution$ +^,/,$ +^many/many$ +^anarchists/anarchist$ +^initially/initially$ +^supporting/support$ +^the/the$ +^Bolshevik/Bolshevik$ +^coup/coup$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Bolsheviks/Bolshevik$ +^soon/soon$ +^turned/turn$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^anarchists/anarchist$ +^and/and$ +^other/other$ +^left-wing/left-wing$ +^opposition/opposition$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^conflict/conflict$ +^that/that$ +^culminated/culminate$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^1921/1921$ +^Kronstadt/*Kronstadt$ +^rebellion/rebellion$ +^./.$ +^Anarchists/Anarchist$ +^in/in$ +^central/central$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^were/be$ +^either/either$ +^imprisoned/imprison$ +^,/,$ +^driven/drive$ +^underground/underground$ +^or/or$ +^joined/join$ +^the/the$ +^victorious/victorious$ +^Bolsheviks/Bolshevik$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^Ukraine/Ukraine$ +^,/,$ +^anarchists/anarchist$ +^fought/fight$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^civil war/civil war$ +^against/against$ +^Whites/White$ +^and/and$ +^then/then$ +^the/the$ +^Bolsheviks/Bolshevik$ +^as/as$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Revolutionary/Revolutionary$ +^Insurrectionary/*Insurrectionary$ +^Army/Army$ +^of/of$ +^Ukraine/Ukraine$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^Nestor/Nestor$ +^Makhno/*Makhno$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^attempted/attempt$ +^to/to$ +^establish/establish$ +^an/a$ +^anarchist/anarchist$ +^society/society$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^months/month$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^victory/victory$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Bolsheviks/Bolshevik$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^October/October$ +^Revolution/Revolution$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^resulting/result$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^Civil War/Civil war$ +^did/do$ +^serious/serious$ +^damage/damage$ +^to/to$ +^anarchist/anarchist$ +^movements/movement$ +^internationally/internationally$ +^./.$ +^Many/Many$ +^workers/worker$ +^and/and$ +^activists/activist$ +^saw/see$ +^Bolshevik/*Bolshevik$ +^success/success$ +^as/as$ +^setting/set$ +^an/a$ +^example/example$ +^;/;$ +^Communist parties/Communist party$ +^grew/grow$ +^at the expense of/at the expense of$ +^anarchism/anarchism$ +^and/and$ +^other/other$ +^socialist/socialist$ +^movements/movement$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^France/France$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^US/US$ +^,/,$ +^for example/for example$ +^,/,$ +^certain/certain$ +^members/member$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^major/major$ +^syndicalist/syndicalist$ +^movements/movement$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^CGT/CGT$ +^and/and$ +^IWW/IWW$ +^left/leave$ +^the/the$ +^organizations/organisation$ +^and/and$ +^joined/join$ +^the/the$ +^Communist/Communist$ +^International/International$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^CNT/CNT$ +^initially/initially$ +^refused/refuse$ +^to/to$ +^join/join$ +^a/a$ +^popular/popular$ +^front/front$ +^electoral/electoral$ +^alliance/alliance$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^abstention/abstention$ +^by/by$ +^CNT/CNT$ +^supporters/supporter$ +^led/lead$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^right/right$ +^wing/wing$ +^election/election$ +^victory/victory$ +^./.$ +^But/But$ +^in/in$ +^1936/1936$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^CNT/*CNT$ +^changed/change$ +^its/prpers$ +^policy/policy$ +^and/and$ +^anarchist/anarchist$ +^votes/vote$ +^helped/help$ +^bring/bring$ +^the/the$ +^popular/popular$ +^front/front$ +^back/back$ +^to/to$ +^power/power$ +^./.$ +^Months/Month$ +^later/later$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^former/former$ +^ruling/ruling$ +^class/class$ +^responded/respond$ +^with/with$ +^an/a$ +^attempted/attempt$ +^coup/coup$ +^causing/cause$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^Civil War/Civil war$ +^(/($ +^1936/1936$ +– +^1939/1939$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^response/response$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^army/army$ +^rebellion/rebellion$ +^,/,$ +^an/a$ +^anarchist/anarchist$ +^-/-$ +^inspired/inspire$ +^movement/movement$ +^of/of$ +^peasants/peasant$ +^and/and$ +^workers/worker$ +^,/,$ +^supported/support$ +^by/by$ +^armed/armed$ +^militias/militia$ +^,/,$ +^took/take$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^Barcelona/Barcelona$ +^and/and$ +^of/of$ +^large/large$ 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+^dissident/dissident$ +^Marxists/Marxist$ +^and/and$ +^anarchists/anarchist$ +^./.$ +^Phenomena/Phenomenon$ +^such as/such as$ +^civilisation/civilisation$ +^,/,$ +^technology/technology$ +^(/($ +^e.g./e.g.$ +^within/within$ +^anarcho/*anarcho$ +^-/-$ +^primitivism/*primitivism$ +^and/and$ +^insurrectionary/*insurrectionary$ +^anarchism/anarchism$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^democratic/democratic$ +^process/process$ +^may/may$ +^be/be$ +^sharply/sharply$ +^criticised/criticise$ +^within/within$ +^some/some$ +^anarchist/anarchist$ +^tendencies/tendency$ +^and/and$ +^simultaneously/simultaneously$ +^lauded/*lauded$ +^in/in$ +^others/others$ +^./.$ +^From/From$ +^the/the$ +^belief/belief$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^survival/survival$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^dead/dead$ +^arose/arise$ +^the/the$ +^practice/practice$ +^of/of$ +^offering/offer$ +^food/food$ +^,/,$ +^lighting/light$ +^fires/fire$ +^,/,$ +^etc./etc.$ +^,/,$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^grave/grave$ +^,/,$ +^at first/at first$ +^,/,$ +^maybe/maybe$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^act/act$ +^of/of$ +^friendship/friendship$ +^or/or$ +^filial/filial$ +^piety/*piety$ +^,/,$ +^later/later$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^act/act$ +^of/of$ +^ancestor/ancestor$ +^worship/worship$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^simple/simple$ +^offering/offering$ +^of/of$ +^food/food$ +^or/or$ +^shedding/shed$ +^of/of$ +^blood/blood$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^grave/grave$ +^develops/develop$ +^into/into$ +^an/a$ +^elaborate/elaborate$ +^system/system$ +^of/of$ +^sacrifice/sacrifice$ +^./.$ +^Even/Even$ +^where/where$ +^ancestor/ancestor$ +^worship/worship$ +^is/be$ +^not/not$ +^found/find$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^desire/desire$ +^to/to$ +^provide/provide$ +^the/the$ +^dead/dead$ +^with/with$ +^comforts/comfort$ +^in the future/in+the+future$ +^life/life$ +^may/may$ +^lead/lead$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^sacrifice/sacrifice$ +^of/of$ +^wives/wife$ +^,/,$ +^slaves/slave$ +^,/,$ +^animals/animal$ +^,/,$ +^and so on/and so on$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^breaking/break$ 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+^belief/belief$ +^that/that$ +^those who/those who$ +^die/die$ +^a/a$ +^violent/violent$ +^death/death$ +^become/become$ +^malignant/malignant$ +^spirits/spirit$ +^and/and$ +^endanger/*endanger$ +^the/the$ +^lives/life$ +^of/of$ +^those who/those who$ +^come/come$ +^near/near$ +^the/the$ +^haunted/haunted$ +^spot/spot$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Malay/Malay$ +^folklore/folklore$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^woman/woman$ +^who/who$ +^dies/die$ +^in/in$ +^childbirth/childbirth$ +^becomes/become$ +^a/a$ +^pontianak/*pontianak$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^vampire-like/vampire-like$ +^spirit/spirit$ +^who/who$ +^threatens/threaten$ +^the/the$ +^life/life$ +^of/of$ +^human beings/human being$ +^./.$ +^People/Person$ +^resort to/resort# to$ +^magical/magical$ +^or/or$ +^religious/religious$ +^means/means$ +^of/of$ +^repelling/repel$ +^spiritual/spiritual$ +^dangers/danger$ +^from/from$ +^such/such$ +^malignant/malignant$ +^spirits/spirit$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^practice/practice$ +^of/of$ +^head/head$ +^shrinking/shrink$ +^among/among$ +^Jivaroan/*Jivaroan$ +^and/and$ +^Urarina/*Urarina$ +^peoples/peoples$ +^derives/derive$ +^from/from$ +^an/a$ +^animistic/*animistic$ +^belief/belief$ +^that/that$ +^if/if$ +^the/the$ +^spirit/spirit$ +^of/of$ +^one/one$ +^'s/'s$ +^mortal/mortal$ +^enemies/enemy$ +^,/,$ +^i.e./i.e.$ +^the/the$ +^nemesis/*nemesis$ +^of/of$ +^one/one$ +^'s/'s$ +^being/being$ +^,/,$ +^are/be$ +^not/not$ +^trapped/trap$ +^within/within$ +^the/the$ +^head/head$ +^,/,$ +^they/prpers$ +^can/can$ +^escape/escape$ +^slain/*slain$ +^bodies/body$ +^./.$ +^After/After$ +^the/the$ +^spirit/spirit$ +^transmigrates/*transmigrates$ +^to/to$ +^another/another$ +^body/body$ +^,/,$ +^they/prpers$ +^can/can$ +^take/take$ +^the/the$ +^form/form$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^predatory/predatory$ +^animal/animal$ +^and/and$ +^even/even$ +^exact/exact$ +^revenge/revenge$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^many/many$ +^mythologies/mythology$ +^focus/focus$ +^largely/largely$ +^on/on$ +^corporeal/*corporeal$ +^beings/being$ +^rather than/rather than$ +" +^spiritual/spiritual$ +" +^ones/one$ +^;/;$ +^the/the$ +^latter/latter$ +^may/may$ +^even/even$ +^be/be$ +^entirely/entirely$ +^absent/absent$ +^./.$ +^Stories/Story$ +^of/of$ +^transformation/transformation$ +^,/,$ +^deluge/deluge$ +^and/and$ +^doom/doom$ +^myths/myth$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^myths/myth$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^origin/origin$ +^of/of$ +^death/death$ +^do/do$ +^not/not$ +^necessarily/necessarily$ +^have/have$ +^any/any$ +^animistic/*animistic$ +^basis/basis$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^term/term$ +" +^animism/animism$ +" +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^applied/apply$ +^to/to$ +^many/many$ +^different/different$ +^philosophical/philosophical$ +^systems/system$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^is/be$ +^used/use$ +^to/to$ +^describe/describe$ +^Aristotle/Aristotle$ +^'s/'s$ +^view/view$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^relation/relation$ +^of/of$ +^soul/soul$ +^and/and$ +^body/body$ +^held/hold$ +^also/also$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Stoics/*Stoics$ +^and/and$ +^Scholastics/*Scholastics$ +^./.$ +^On the other hand/On the other hand$ +^monadology/*monadology$ +^(/($ +^Leibniz/Leibniz$ +^)/)$ +^has/have$ +^also/also$ +^been/be$ +^termed/term$ +^animistic/*animistic$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^name/name$ +^is/be$ +^most/most$ +^commonly/commonly$ +^applied/apply$ +^to/to$ +^vitalism/*vitalism$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^view/view$ +^mainly/mainly$ +^associated/associate$ +^with/with$ +^Georg/Georg$ +^Ernst/Ernst$ +^Stahl/Stahl$ +^and/and$ +^revived/revive$ +^by/by$ +^F./F.$ +^Bouillier/*Bouillier$ +^(/($ +^1813/1813$ +^-/-$ +^1899/1899$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^makes/make$ +^life/life$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +^life/life$ +^and/and$ +^mind/mind$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^directive/directive$ +^principle/principle$ +^in/in$ +^evolution/evolution$ +^and/and$ +^growth/growth$ +^,/,$ +^holding/hold$ +^that/that$ +^all/all$ +^cannot/can+not$ +^be/be$ +^traced back/trace# back$ +^to/to$ +^chemical/chemical$ +^and/and$ +^mechanical/mechanical$ +^processes/process$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^that/that$ +^there/there$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^directive/directive$ +^force/force$ +^which/which$ +^guides/guide$ +^energy/energy$ +^without/without$ +^altering/alter$ +^its/prpers$ +^amount/amount$ +^./.$ +^An/A$ +^entirely/entirely$ +^different/different$ +^class/class$ +^of/of$ +^ideas/idea$ +^,/,$ +^also/also$ +^termed/term$ +^animistic/*animistic$ +^,/,$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^belief/belief$ +^in the world/in+the+world$ +^soul/soul$ +^(/($ +^anima/*anima$ +^mundi/*mundi$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^held/hold$ +^by/by$ +^Plato/Plato$ +^,/,$ +^Schelling/*Schelling$ +^and/and$ +^others/others$ +^./.$ +^There/There$ +^are/be$ +^some/some$ +^Hindu/*Hindu$ +^groups/group$ +^which/which$ +^may/may$ +^be/be$ +^considered/consider$ +^animist/*animist$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^coastal/coastal$ +^Karnataka/*Karnataka$ +^has/have$ +^a/a$ +^different/different$ +^tradition/tradition$ +^of/of$ +^praying/pray$ +^the/the$ +^spirits/spirit$ +^for/for$ +^their/prpers$ +^good/good$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^chemistry/chemistry$ +^and/and$ +^physics/physics$ +^,/,$ +^atomic/atomic$ +^theory/theory$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^theory/theory$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^nature/nature$ +^of/of$ +^matter/matter$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^states/state$ +^that/that$ +^matter/matter$ +^is/be$ +^composed/compose$ +^of/of$ +^discrete/discrete$ +^units/unit$ +^called/call$ +^atoms/atom$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^opposed/oppose$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^obsolete/obsolete$ +^notion/notion$ +^that/that$ +^matter/matter$ +^could/can$ +^be/be$ +^divided/divide$ +^into/into$ +^any/any$ +^arbitrarily/arbitrarily$ +^small/small$ +^quantity/quantity$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^began/begin$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^philosophical/philosophical$ +^concept/concept$ +^in/in$ +^ancient/ancient$ +^Greece/Greece$ +^and/and$ +^India/India$ +^and/and$ +^entered/enter$ +^the/the$ +^scientific/scientific$ +^mainstream/mainstream$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^19th century/19th century$ +^when/when$ +^discoveries/discovery$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^of/of$ +^chemistry/chemistry$ +^showed/show$ +^that/that$ +^matter/matter$ +^did/do$ +^indeed/indeed$ +^behave/behave$ +^as/as$ +^if/if$ +^it/prpers$ +^were/be$ +^made/make$ +^up/up$ +^of/of$ +^particles/particle$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^planetary/planetary$ +^model/model$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^atom/atom$ +^had/have$ +^two/two$ +^significant/significant$ +^shortcomings/shortcoming$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^first/first$ +^is/be$ +^that/that$ +^,/,$ +^unlike/unlike$ +^planets/planet$ +^orbiting/orbit$ +^a/a$ +^sun/sun$ +^,/,$ +^electrons/electron$ +^are/be$ +^charged/charge$ +^particles/particle$ +^./.$ +^An/A$ +^accelerating/accelerate$ +^electric/electric$ +^charge/charge$ +^is/be$ +^known/know$ +^to/to$ +^emit/emit$ +^electromagnetic/electromagnetic$ +^waves/wave$ +^according to/according to$ +^the/the$ +^Larmor/Larmor$ +^formula/formula$ +^in/in$ +^classical/classical$ +^electromagnetism/electromagnetism$ +^;/;$ +^an/a$ +^orbiting/orbit$ +^charge/charge$ +^should/shall$ +^steadily/steadily$ +^lose/lose$ +^energy/energy$ +^and/and$ +^spiral/spiral$ +^towards/towards$ +^the/the$ +^nucleus/nucleus$ +^,/,$ +^colliding/collide$ +^with/with$ +^it/prpers$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^small/small$ +^fraction/fraction$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^second/second$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^second/second$ +^problem/problem$ +^was/be$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^planetary/planetary$ +^model/model$ +^could/can$ +^not/not$ +^explain/explain$ +^the/the$ +^highly/highly$ +^peaked/*peaked$ +^emission/emission$ +^and/and$ +^absorption/absorption$ +^spectra/*spectra$ +^of/of$ +^atoms/atom$ +^that/that$ +^were/be$ +^observed/observe$ +^./.$ +^Bohr/Bohr$ +^'s/'s$ +^model/model$ +^was/be$ +^not/not$ +^perfect/perfect$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^could/can$ +^only/only$ +^predict/predict$ +^the/the$ +^spectral/spectral$ +^lines/line$ +^of/of$ +^hydrogen/hydrogen$ +^;/;$ +^it/prpers$ +^couldn't/can+not$ +^predict/predict$ +^those/that$ +^of/of$ +^multielectron/*multielectron$ +^atoms/atom$ +^./.$ +^Worse/Bad$ +^still/still$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^spectrographic/spectrographic$ +^technology/technology$ +^improved/improve$ +^,/,$ +^additional/additional$ +^spectral/spectral$ +^lines/line$ +^in/in$ +^hydrogen/hydrogen$ +^were/be$ +^observed/observe$ +^which/which$ +^Bohr/Bohr$ +^'s/'s$ +^model/model$ +^couldn't/can+not$ +^explain/explain$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1916/1916$ +^,/,$ +^Arnold/Arnold$ +^Sommerfeld/*Sommerfeld$ +^added/add$ +^elliptical/elliptical$ +^orbits/orbit$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Bohr/Bohr$ +^model/model$ +^to/to$ +^explain/explain$ +^the/the$ +^extra/extra$ +^emission/emission$ +^lines/line$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^this/this$ +^made/make$ +^the/the$ +^model/model$ +^very/very$ +^difficult/difficult$ +^to/to$ +^use/use$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^it/prpers$ +^still/still$ +^couldn't/can+not$ +^explain/explain$ +^more/more$ +^complex/complex$ +^atoms/atom$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^consequence/consequence$ +^of/of$ +^describing/describe$ +^electrons/electron$ +^as/as$ +^waveforms/*waveforms$ +^is/be$ +^that/that$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^mathematically/mathematically$ +^impossible/impossible$ +^to/to$ +^simultaneously/simultaneously$ +^derive/derive$ +^the/the$ +^position/position$ +^and/and$ +^momentum/momentum$ +^of/of$ +^an/a$ +^electron/electron$ +^;/;$ +^this/this$ +^became/become$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^uncertainty/uncertainty$ +^principle/principle$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^invalidated/invalidate$ +^Bohr/Bohr$ +^'s/'s$ +^model/model$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^its/prpers$ +^neat/neat$ +^,/,$ +^clearly/clearly$ +^defined/define$ +^circular/circular$ +^orbits/orbit$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^modern/modern$ +^model/model$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^atom/atom$ +^describes/describe$ +^the/the$ +^positions/position$ +^of/of$ +^electrons/electron$ +^in/in$ +^an/a$ +^atom/atom$ +^in/in$ +^terms/term$ +^of/of$ +^probabilities/probability$ +^./.$ +^An/A$ +^electron/electron$ +^can/can$ +^potentially/potentially$ +^be/be$ +^found/find$ +^at/at$ +^any/any$ +^distance/distance$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^nucleus/nucleus$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^,/,$ +^depending/depend$ +^on/on$ +^its/prpers$ +^energy/energy$ +^level/level$ +^,/,$ +^tends/tend$ +^to/to$ +^exist/exist$ +^more/more$ +^frequently/frequently$ +^in/in$ +^certain/certain$ +^regions/region$ +^around/around$ +^the/the$ +^nucleus/nucleus$ +^than/than$ +^others/other$ +^;/;$ +^this/this$ +^pattern/pattern$ +^is/be$ +^referred/refer$ +^to/to$ +^as/as$ +^its/prpers$ +^atomic/atomic$ +^orbital/orbital$ +^./.$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^faced/face$ +^two/two$ +^obstacles/obstacle$ +^to/to$ +^independence/independence$ +^:/:$ +^British/British$ +^reluctance/*reluctance$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^1960/1960$ +^to/to$ +^allow/allow$ +^citizens/citizen$ +^to/to$ +^govern/govern$ +^themselves/themselves$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^'s/'s$ +^complete/complete$ +^intransigence/*intransigence$ +^over/over$ +^its/prpers$ +^long/long$ +^-/-$ +^standing/stand$ +^claim/claim$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^entire/entire$ +^territory/territory$ +^(/($ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^had/have$ +^repeatedly/repeatedly$ +^threatened/threaten$ +^to/to$ +^use/use$ +^force/force$ +^to/to$ +^take/take$ +^over/over$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^By/By$ +^1961/1961$ +^,/,$ +^the United Kingdom/the United Kingdom$ +^was/be$ +^willing/willing$ +^to/to$ +^let/let$ +^the/the$ +^colony/colony$ +^become/become$ +^independent/independent$ +^./.$ +^From/From$ +^1964/1964$ +^the UK/the UK$ +^controlled/control$ +^only/only$ +^defence/defence$ +^,/,$ +^foreign/foreign$ +^affairs/affair$ +^,/,$ +^internal/internal$ +^security/security$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^terms/term$ +^and/and$ +^conditions/condition$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^public/public$ +^service/service$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^1/1$ +^June/June$ +^1973/1973$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^colony/colony$ +^'s/'s$ +^name/name$ +^was/be$ +^changed/change$ +^to/to$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^in/in$ +^anticipation/anticipation$ +^of/of$ 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+^associated/associate$ +^with/with$ +^independence/independence$ +^./.$ +^Even/Even$ +^after/after$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^became/become$ +^independent/independent$ +^in/in$ +^1981/1981$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^territorial/territorial$ +^dispute/dispute$ +^remained/remain$ +^unsettled/*unsettled$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^territorial/territorial$ +^dispute/dispute$ +^'s/'s$ +^origins/origin$ +^lay/lay$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^18th/18$ +^-/-$ +^century/century$ +^treaties/treaty$ +^in/in$ +^which/which$ +^Great Britain/Great Britain$ +^acceded/*acceded$ +^to/to$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^'s/'s$ +^assertion/assertion$ +^of/of$ +^sovereignty/sovereignty$ +^while/while$ +^British/British$ +^settlers/*settlers$ +^continued/continue$ +^to/to$ +^occupy/occupy$ +^the/the$ +^sparsely/*sparsely$ +^settled/settle$ +^and/and$ +^ill/ill$ +^-/-$ +^defined/define$ +^area/area$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^1786/1786$ +^Convention/Convention$ +^of/of$ +^London/London$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^affirmed/affirm$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^sovereignty/sovereignty$ +^was/be$ +^never/never$ +^renegotiated/renegotiate$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^never/never$ +^attempted/attempt$ +^to/to$ +^reclaim/*reclaim$ +^the/the$ +^area/area$ +^after/after$ +^1798/1798$ +^./.$ +^Subsequent/Subsequent$ +^treaties/treaty$ +^between/between$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^and/and$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^failed/fail$ +^to/to$ +^mention/mention$ +^the/the$ +^British/British$ +^settlement/settlement$ +^./.$ +^By/By$ +^the/the$ +^time/time$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^lost/lose$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^Mexico/Mexico$ +^and/and$ +^Central America/Central America$ +^in/in$ +^1821/1821$ +^,/,$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^had/have$ +^extended/extend$ +^its/prpers$ +^control/control$ +^over/over$ +^the/the$ +^area/area$ +^,/,$ +^albeit/*albeit$ +^informally/informally$ +^and/and$ +^unsystematically/*unsystematically$ +^./.$ +^By/By$ +^the/the$ +^1830/1830$ +^,/,$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^regarded/regard$ +^the/the$ +^entire/entire$ +^territory/territory$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Hondo/*Hondo$ +^River/River$ +^and/and$ +^Sarstoon/*Sarstoon$ +^River/River$ +^as/as$ +^British/British$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^independent/independent$ +^republics/republic$ +^that/that$ +^emerged/emerge$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^disintegrating/disintegrate$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^1820/1820$ +^claimed/claim$ +^that/that$ +^they/prpers$ +^had/have$ +^inherited/inherit$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^'s/'s$ +^sovereign/sovereign$ +^rights/right$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^area/area$ +^./.$ +^The UK/The UK$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^never/never$ +^accepted/accept$ +^such a/such a$ +^doctrine/doctrine$ +^./.$ +^Based/Base$ +^on/on$ +^this/this$ +^doctrine/doctrine$ +^of/of$ +^inheritance/inheritance$ +^,/,$ +^Mexico/Mexico$ +^and/and$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^asserted/assert$ +^claims/claim$ +^to/to$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^./.$ +^Mexico/Mexico$ +^once/once$ +^claimed/claim$ +^the/the$ +^portion/portion$ +^of/of$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^north/north$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Sibun/*Sibun$ +^River/River$ +^but/but$ +^dropped/drop$ +^the/the$ +^claim/claim$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^with/with$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^in/in$ +^1893/1893$ +^./.$ +^Since then/Since then$ +^,/,$ +^Mexico/Mexico$ +^has/have$ +^stated/state$ +^that/that$ +^it/prpers$ +^would/will$ +^revive/revive$ +^the/the$ +^claim/claim$ +^only/only$ +^if/if$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^were/be$ +^successful/successful$ +^in/in$ +^obtaining/obtain$ +^all/all$ +^or/or$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^nation/nation$ +^./.$ +^Still/Still$ +^,/,$ +^Mexico/Mexico$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^first/first$ +^nation/nation$ +^to/to$ +^recognise/recognise$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^independent/independent$ +^country/country$ +^./.$ +^At/At$ +^the/the$ +^centre/centre$ +^of/of$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^'s/'s$ +^oldest/old$ +^claim/claim$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^1859/1859$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^between/between$ +^the United Kingdom/the United Kingdom$ +^and/and$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^./.$ +^From/From$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^'s/'s$ +^viewpoint/viewpoint$ +^,/,$ +^this/this$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^merely/merely$ +^settled/settle$ +^the/the$ +^boundaries/boundary$ +^of/of$ +^an/a$ +^area/area$ +^already/already$ +^under/under$ +^British/British$ +^dominion/*dominion$ +^./.$ +^Today/Today$ +^'s/'s$ +^independent/independent$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^government/government$ +^holds/hold$ +^the/the$ +^viewpoint/viewpoint$ +^that/that$ +^treaties/treaty$ +^signed/sign$ +^by/by$ +^the UK/the UK$ +^are/be$ +^not/not$ +^binding/binding$ +^on/on$ +^them/prpers$ +^,/,$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^International/International$ +^Court/Court$ +^of/of$ +^Justice/Justice$ +^'s/'s$ +^precedent/precedent$ +^is/be$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^1859/1859$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^is/be$ +^binding/binding$ +^on/on$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^unless/unless$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^can/can$ +^firmly/firmly$ +^prove/prove$ +^the/the$ +^1859/1859$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^was/be$ +^forced/force$ +^upon/upon$ +^them/prpers$ +^by/by$ +^the UK/the UK$ +^,/,$ +^that/that$ +^international/international$ +^law/law$ +^says/say$ +^any/any$ +^breaches/breach$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^1859/1859$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^by/by$ +^the UK/the UK$ +^would/will$ +^not/not$ +^excuse/excuse$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^'s/'s$ +^breaches/breach$ +^and/and$ +^the UK/the UK$ +^never/never$ +^made/make$ +" +^material/material$ +^breaches/breach$ +^,/,$ +" +^that/that$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^never/never$ +^inherited/inherit$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^'s/'s$ +^claim/claim$ +^because/because$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^never/never$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^that/that$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^'s/'s$ +^New/New$ +^World/World$ +^colonies/colony$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^right/right$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^people/person$ +^to/to$ +^self-determination/self-determination$ +^./.$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^opposition/opposition$ +^to/to$ +^both/both$ +^the UK/the UK$ +^and/and$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^positions/position$ +^,/,$ +^has/have$ +^an/a$ +^older/old$ +^view/view$ +^that/that$ +^this/this$ +^agreement/agreement$ +^was/be$ +^a/a$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^of/of$ +^cession/cession$ +^through/through$ +^which/which$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^would/will$ +^give up/give# up$ +^its/prpers$ +^territorial/territorial$ +^claims/claim$ +^only/only$ +^under/under$ +^certain/certain$ +^conditions/condition$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^the/the$ +^construction/construction$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^road/road$ +^from/from$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Caribbean/Caribbean$ +^coast/coast$ +^./.$ +^The UK/The UK$ +^never/never$ +^built/build$ +^the/the$ +^road/road$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^said/say$ +^it/prpers$ +^would/will$ +^repudiate/repudiate$ +^the/the$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^in/in$ +^1884/1884$ +^but/but$ +^never/never$ +^followed/follow$ +^up/up$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^threat/threat$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^dispute/dispute$ +^appeared/appear$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^forgotten/forget$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^1930/1930$ +^,/,$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^government/government$ +^of/of$ +^General/General$ +^Jorge/Jorge$ +^Ubico/*Ubico$ +^claimed/claim$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^was/be$ +^invalid/invalid$ +^because/because$ +^the/the$ +^road/road$ +^had/have$ +^not/not$ +^been/be$ +^constructed/construct$ +^./.$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^argued/argue$ +^that/that$ +^because/because$ +^neither/neither$ +^the/the$ +^short/short$ +^-/-$ +^lived/live$ +^Central American/Central American$ +^Federation/Federation$ +^(/($ +^1821/1821$ +– +^39/39$ +^)/)$ +^nor/nor$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^had/have$ +^ever/ever$ +^exercised/exercise$ +^any/any$ +^authority/authority$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^area/area$ +^or/or$ +^even/even$ +^protested/protest$ +^the/the$ +^British/British$ +^presence/presence$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^19th century/19th century$ +^,/,$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^was/be$ +^clearly/clearly$ +^under/under$ +^British/British$ +^sovereignty/sovereignty$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^its/prpers$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^of/of$ +^1945/1945$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^stated/state$ +^that/that$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^twenty/twenty$ +^-/-$ +^third/third$ +^department/department$ +^of/of$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^(/($ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^'s/'s$ +^newest/new$ +^claim/claim$ +^on/on$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^in/in$ +^1999/1999$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^makes/make$ +^no/no$ +^mention/mention$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^1859/1859$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^,/,$ +^instead/instead$ +^relying/rely$ +^on/on$ +^Anglo/*Anglo$ +^-/-$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^treaties/treaty$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^18th century/18th century$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^February/February$ +^1948/1948$ +^,/,$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^threatened/threaten$ +^to/to$ +^invade/invade$ +^and/and$ +^forcibly/*forcibly$ +^annexe/*annexe$ +^the/the$ +^territory/territory$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^British/British$ +^responded/respond$ +^by/by$ +^deploying/deploy$ +^two/two$ +^companies/company$ +^from/from$ +^2nd/2$ +^Battalion/*Battalion$ +^Gloucestershire/*Gloucestershire$ +^Regiment/Regiment$ +^./.$ +^One/One$ +^company/company$ +^deployed/deploy$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^border/border$ +^and/and$ +^found/find$ +^no/no$ +^signs/sign$ +^of/of$ +^any/any$ +^Guatemalan/Guatemalan$ +^incursion/incursion$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^the/the$ +^British/British$ +^decided/decide$ +^to/to$ +^permanently/permanently$ +^station/station$ +^a/a$ +^company/company$ +^in/in$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^City/City$ +^./.$ +^Since/Since$ +^1954/1954$ +^a/a$ +^succession/succession$ +^of/of$ +^military/military$ +^and/and$ +^right-wing/right-wing$ +^governments/government$ +^in/in$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^frequently/frequently$ +^whipped/*whipped$ +^up/up$ +^nationalist/nationalist$ +^sentiment/*sentiment$ +^,/,$ +^generally/generally$ +^to/to$ +^divert/divert$ +^attention/attention$ +^from/from$ +^domestic/domestic$ +^problems/problem$ +^./.$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^also/also$ +^periodically/periodically$ +^massed/mass$ +^troops/troop$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^border/border$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^country/country$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^threatening/threatening$ +^posture/posture$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1957/1957$ +^,/,$ +^responding/respond$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^Guatemalan/Guatemalan$ +^threat/threat$ +^to/to$ +^invade/invade$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^company/company$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Worcesteshire/*Worcesteshire$ +^Regiment/Regiment$ +^was/be$ +^deployed/deploy$ +^,/,$ +^staying/stay$ +^briefly/briefly$ +^and/and$ +^carrying out/carry# out$ +^jungle/jungle$ +^training/training$ +^before/before$ +^leaving/leave$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^21/21$ +^January/January$ +^1958/1958$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^force/force$ +^of/of$ +^pro/*pro$ +^-/-$ +^Guatemalan/Guatemalan$ +^fighters/fighter$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^Liberation/*Liberation$ +^Army/Army$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^had/have$ +^likely/likely$ +^been/be$ +^aided/*aided$ +^and/and$ +^encouraged/encourage$ +^by/by$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^,/,$ +^crossed/cross$ +^the/the$ +^border/border$ +^and/and$ +^raised/raise$ +^the/the$ +^British/British$ +^flag/flag$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^British/British$ +^platoon/*platoon$ +^was/be$ +^then/then$ +^deployed/deploy$ +^and/and$ +^exchanged/exchange$ +^fire/fire$ +^with/with$ +^them/prpers$ +^,/,$ +^before/before$ +^arresting/arrest$ +^some/some$ +^20/20$ +^fighters/fighter$ +^./.$ +^Negotiations/Negotiation$ +^between/between$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^and/and$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^began/begin$ +^again/again$ +^in/in$ +^1961/1961$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^the/the$ +^elected/elect$ +^representatives/representative$ +^of/of$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^had/have$ +^no/no$ +^voice/voice$ +^in/in$ +^these/this$ +^talks/talk$ +^./.$ +^George/George$ +^Price/Price$ +^refused/refuse$ +^an/a$ +^invitation/invitation$ +^from/from$ +^Guatemalan/Guatemalan$ +^President/President$ +^Ydígoras/*Ydígoras$ +^Fuentes/*Fuentes$ +^to/to$ +^make/make$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^an/a$ +" +^associated/associate$ +^state/state$ +" +^of/of$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^./.$ +^Price/Price$ +^reiterated/reiterate$ +^his/prpers$ +^goal/goal$ +^of/of$ +^leading/lead$ +^the/the$ +^colony/colony$ +^to/to$ +^independence/independence$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1963/1963$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^broke/break$ +^off/off$ +^talks/talk$ +^and/and$ +^ended/end$ +^diplomatic/diplomatic$ +^relations/relation$ +^with/with$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1965/1965$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^and/and$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^agreed to/agree# to$ +^have/have$ +^a/a$ +^United States/United States$ +^lawyer/lawyer$ +^,/,$ +^appointed/appoint$ +^by/by$ +^United States/United States$ +^President/President$ +^Lyndon/*Lyndon$ +^Johnson/Johnson$ +^,/,$ +^mediate/mediate$ +^the/the$ +^dispute/dispute$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^lawyer/lawyer$ +^'s/'s$ +^draft/draft$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^proposed/propose$ +^giving/give$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^so much/so much$ +^control/control$ +^over/over$ +^the/the$ +^newly/newly$ +^independent/independent$ +^country/country$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^internal/internal$ +^security/security$ +^,/,$ +^defence/defence$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^external/external$ +^affairs/affair$ +^,/,$ +^that/that$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^would/will$ +^have/have$ +^become/become$ +^more/more$ +^dependent/dependent$ +^on/on$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^than/than$ +^it/prpers$ +^was/be$ +^already/already$ +^on/on$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^./.$ +^the United States/the United States$ +^supported/support$ +^the/the$ +^proposals/proposal$ +^./.$ +^All/All$ +^parties/party$ +^in/in$ +^British/British$ +^Honduras/Honduras$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^denounced/denounce$ +^the/the$ +^proposals/proposal$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Price/Price$ +^seized/seize$ +^the/the$ +^initiative/initiative$ +^by/by$ +^demanding/demand$ +^independence/independence$ +^from/from$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^with/with$ +^appropriate/appropriate$ +^defence/defence$ +^guarantees/guarantee$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^series/series$ +^of/of$ +^meetings/meeting$ +^,/,$ +^begun/begin$ +^in/in$ +^1969/1969$ +^,/,$ +^ended/end$ +^abruptly/abruptly$ +^in/in$ +^1972/1972$ +^when/when$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^announced/announce$ +^it/prpers$ +^was/be$ +^sending/send$ +^an/a$ +^aircraft/aircraft$ +^carrier/carrier$ +^and/and$ +^8,000/8,000$ +^troops/troop$ +^to/to$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^to/to$ +^conduct/conduct$ +^amphibious/amphibious$ +^exercises/exercise$ +^./.$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^then/then$ +^massed/mass$ +^troops/troop$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^border/border$ +^./.$ +^Talks/Talk$ +^resumed/resume$ +^between/between$ +^1973/1973$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^broke/break$ +^off/off$ +^in/in$ +^1975/1975$ +^when/when$ +^tensions/tension$ +^flared/*flared$ +^./.$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^began/begin$ +^massing/mass$ +^troops/troop$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^border/border$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^responded/respond$ +^by/by$ +^deploying/deploy$ +^troops/troop$ +^,/,$ +^along with/along with$ +^an/a$ +^artillery/artillery$ +^battery/battery$ +^,/,$ +^anti/*anti$ +^-/-$ +^aircraft/aircraft$ +^missile/missile$ +^units/unit$ +^,/,$ +^six/six$ +^fighter/fighter$ +^jets/jet$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^a/a$ +^frigate/frigate$ +^,/,$ +^after which/after which$ +^tensions/tension$ +^were/be$ +^defused/*defused$ +^,/,$ +^largely/largely$ +^as a result of/as a result of$ +^many/many$ +^Guatemalan/Guatemalan$ +^soldiers/soldier$ +^deserting/desert$ +^and/and$ +^returning/return$ +^to/to$ +^their/prpers$ +^homes/home$ +^./.$ +^At this point/At this point$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Belizean/*Belizean$ +^and/and$ +^British/British$ +^governments/government$ +^,/,$ +^frustrated/frustrate$ +^at/at$ +^dealing with/deal# with$ +^the/the$ +^military/military$ +^-/-$ +^dominated/dominate$ +^regimes/regime$ +^in/in$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^,/,$ +^agreed/agree$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^new/new$ +^strategy/strategy$ +^that/that$ +^would/will$ +^take/take$ +^the/the$ +^case/case$ +^for/for$ +^self-determination/self-determination$ +^to/to$ +^various/various$ +^international/international$ +^forums/forum$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^government/government$ +^felt/feel$ +^that/that$ +^by/by$ +^gaining/gain$ +^international/international$ +^support/support$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^could/can$ +^strengthen/strengthen$ +^its/prpers$ +^position/position$ +^,/,$ +^weaken/weaken$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^'s/'s$ +^claims/claim$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^make/make$ +^it/prpers$ +^harder/hard$ +^for/for$ +^Britain/Britain$ +^to/to$ +^make/make$ +^any/any$ +^concessions/concession$ +^./.$ +^Belize/Belize$ +^argued/argue$ +^that/that$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^frustrated/frustrate$ +^the/the$ +^country/country$ +^'s/'s$ +^legitimate/legitimate$ +^aspirations/aspiration$ +^to/to$ +^independence/independence$ +^and/and$ +^that/that$ +^Guatemala/Guatemala$ +^was/be$ +^pushing/push$ +^an/a$ +^irrelevant/irrelevant$ +^claim/claim$ +^and/and$ +^disguising/disguise$ +^its/prpers$ +^own/own$ +^colonial/colonial$ +^ambitions/ambition$ +^by/by$ +^trying/try$ +^to/to$ +^present/present$ +^the/the$ +^dispute/dispute$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^effort/effort$ +^to/to$ +^recover/recover$ +^territory/territory$ +^lost/lose$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^colonial/colonial$ +^power/power$ +^./.$ +^Between/Between$ +^1975/1975$ +^and/and$ +^1981/1981$ +^,/,$ +^Belizean/*Belizean$ +^leaders/leader$ +^stated/state$ +^their/prpers$ +^case/case$ +^for/for$ +^self-determination/self-determination$ +^at/at$ +^a/a$ +^meeting/meeting$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^heads/head$ +^of/of$ +^Commonwealth/*Commonwealth$ +^of/of$ +^Nations/Nation$ +^governments/government$ +^in/in$ +^Jamaica/Jamaica$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^conference/conference$ +^of/of$ +^ministers/minister$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Nonaligned/*Nonaligned$ +^Movement/Movement$ +^in/in$ +^Peru/Peru$ +^,/,$ 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+^Barbarossa/*Barbarossa$ +^./.$ +^Between/Between$ +^June/June$ +^22/22$ +^and/and$ +^July/July$ +^26/26$ +^,/,$ +^1941/1941$ +^,/,$ +^Romanian/Romanian$ +^troops/troop$ +^with the help of/with the help of$ +^Wehrmacht/*Wehrmacht$ +^recovered/recover$ +^Bessarabia/*Bessarabia$ +^and/and$ +^northern/northern$ +^Bukovina/*Bukovina$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Soviets/*Soviets$ +^employed/employ$ +^scorched/*scorched$ +^-/-$ +^earth/earth$ +^tactics/tactic$ +^during/during$ +^their/prpers$ +^forced/force$ +^retreat/retreat$ +^from/from$ +^Bessarabia/*Bessarabia$ +^,/,$ +^destroying/destroy$ +^the/the$ +^infrastructure/infrastructure$ +^and/and$ +^transporting/transport$ +^movable/movable$ +^goods/good$ +^to/to$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^by/by$ +^railway/railway$ +^./.$ +^At the end/At the end$ +^of/of$ +^July/July$ +^,/,$ +^after/after$ +^a/a$ +^year/year$ +^of/of$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^rule/rule$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^was/be$ +^once again/once again$ +^under/under$ +^Romanian/Romanian$ +^control/control$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^the/the$ +^military/military$ +^operation/operation$ +^was/be$ +^still/still$ +^in/in$ +^progress/progress$ +^,/,$ +^there/there$ +^were/be$ +^cases/case$ +^of/of$ +^Romanian/Romanian$ +^troops/troop$ +" +^taking/take$ +^revenge/revenge$ +" +^on/on$ +^Jews/*Jews$ +^in/in$ +^Bessarabia/*Bessarabia$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^form/form$ +^of/of$ +^pogroms/pogrom$ +^on/on$ +^civilians/civilian$ +^and/and$ +^murder/murder$ +^of/of$ +^Jewish/Jewish$ +^POWs/*POWs$ +^,/,$ +^resulting/result$ +^in/in$ +^several/several$ +^thousand/thousand$ +^dead/dead$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^supposed/supposed$ +^cause/cause$ +^for/for$ +^murdering/murder$ +^Jews/*Jews$ +^was/be$ +^that/that$ +^in/in$ +^1940/1940$ +^some/some$ +^Jews/*Jews$ +^welcomed/welcome$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^takeover/takeover$ +^as/as$ +^liberation/*liberation$ +^./.$ +^At the same time/At the same time$ +^the/the$ +^notorious/notorious$ +^SS/SS$ +^Einsatzgruppe/*Einsatzgruppe$ +^D/*D$ +^,/,$ +^operating/operate$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^area/area$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^German/German$ +^11th/11$ +^Army/Army$ +^,/,$ +^committed/commit$ +^summary/summary$ +^executions/execution$ +^of/of$ +^Jews/*Jews$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^pretext/pretext$ +^that/that$ +^they/prpers$ +^were/be$ +^spies/spy$ +^,/,$ +^saboteurs/*saboteurs$ +^,/,$ +^Communists/Communist$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +^under/under$ +^no/no$ +^pretext/pretext$ +^whatsoever/*whatsoever$ +^./.$ +^That/That$ +^portion/portion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Jewish/Jewish$ +^population/population$ +^of/of$ +^Bessarabia/*Bessarabia$ +^and/and$ +^Bukovina/*Bukovina$ +^which/which$ +^did/do$ +^not/not$ +^flee/flee$ +^before/before$ +^the/the$ +^retreat/retreat$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^troops/troop$ +^(/($ +^147,000/147,000$ +^)/)$ +^was/be$ +^initially/initially$ +^gathered/gather$ +^into/into$ +^ghettos/*ghettos$ +^or/or$ +^concentration/concentration$ +^camps/camp$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^then/then$ +^deported/deport$ +^during/during$ +^1941/1941$ +^-/-$ +^1942/1942$ +^in/in$ +^death/death$ +^marches/march$ +^into/into$ +^Romanian/Romanian$ +^-/-$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^Transnistria/*Transnistria$ +^,/,$ +^where/where$ +^the/the$ +" +^Final/Final$ +^Solution/Solution$ +" +^was/be$ +^applied/apply$ +^./.$ +^After/After$ +^three/three$ +^years/year$ +^of/of$ +^relative/relative$ +^peace/peace$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^German/German$ +^-/-$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^front/front$ +^returned/return$ +^in/in$ +^1944/1944$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^land/land$ +^border/border$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Dniester/*Dniester$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^August/August$ +^20/20$ +^,/,$ +^1944/1944$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^ca/*ca$ +^3400000/3400000$ +^-/-$ +^strong/strong$ +^Red/Red$ +^Army/Army$ +^began/begin$ +^a/a$ +^major/major$ +^summer/summer$ +^offensive/offensive$ +^codenamed/*codenamed$ +^Jassy/*Jassy$ +^-/-$ +^Kishinev/*Kishinev$ +^Operation/Operation$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Soviet armies/Soviet army$ +^overran/overrun$ +^Bessarabia/*Bessarabia$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^two/two$ +^-/-$ +^pronged/*pronged$ +^offensive/offensive$ +^within/within$ +^five/five$ +^days/day$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^pocket/pocket$ +^battles/battle$ +^at/at$ +^Chisinau/*Chisinau$ +^and/and$ +^Sarata/*Sarata$ +^the/the$ +^German/German$ +^6th/6$ +^Army/Army$ +^of/of$ +^ca/*ca$ +^650000/650000$ +^men/man$ +^,/,$ +^newly/newly$ +^reformed/reform$ +^after/after$ +^the/the$ +^Battle/Battle$ +^of/of$ +^Stalingrad/*Stalingrad$ +^,/,$ +^was/be$ +^obliterated/obliterate$ +^./.$ +^Simultaneously/Simultaneously$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^success/success$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^attack/attack$ +^,/,$ +^Romania/Romania$ +^broke/break$ +^the/the$ +^military/military$ +^alliance/alliance$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Axis/Axis$ +^and/and$ +^changed sides/change# sides$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^the/the$ +^23rd/23$ +^August/August$ +^,/,$ +^1944/1944$ +^,/,$ +^Marshal/Marshal$ +^Ion/Ion$ +^Antonescu/*Antonescu$ +^was/be$ +^arrested/arrest$ +^by/by$ +^King/King$ +^Michael/Michael$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^later/later$ +^handed/hand$ +^over/over$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Soviets/*Soviets$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^regained/regain$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^in/in$ +^1944/1944$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Red/Red$ +^Army/Army$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^Romania/Romania$ +^./.$ +^By/By$ +^1947/1947$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Soviets/*Soviets$ +^had/have$ +^imposed/impose$ +^a/a$ +^communist/communist$ +^government/government$ +^in/in$ +^Bucharest/Bucharest$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^was/be$ +^friendly/friendly$ +^and/and$ +^obedient/obedient$ +^towards/towards$ +^Moscow/Moscow$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^occupation/occupation$ +^of/of$ +^Romania/Romania$ +^lasted/last$ +^until/until$ +^1958/1958$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Romanian/Romanian$ +^communist/communist$ +^regime/regime$ +^did/do$ +^not/not$ +^openly/openly$ +^raise/raise$ +^the/the$ +^matter/matter$ +^of/of$ +^Bessarabia/*Bessarabia$ +^or/or$ +^Northern/Northern$ +^Bukovina/*Bukovina$ +^in/in$ +^its/prpers$ +^diplomatic/diplomatic$ +^relations/relation$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^December/December$ +^1971/1971$ +^,/,$ +^following/follow$ +^an/a$ +^informative/informative$ +^note/note$ +^from/from$ +^Ion/Ion$ +^Stanescu/*Stanescu$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^President/President$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Council/Council$ +^of/of$ +^State/State$ +^Security/Security$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Romanian/Romanian$ +^Socialist/Socialist$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^Yuri/*Yuri$ +^Andropov/*Andropov$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^chief/chief$ +^of/of$ +^KGB/KGB$ +^,/,$ +^three/three$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^leaders/leader$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^National/National$ +^Patriotic/Patriotic$ +^Front/Front$ +^,/,$ +^Alexandru/*Alexandru$ +^Usatiuc/*Usatiuc$ +^-/-$ +^Bulgar/*Bulgar$ +^,/,$ +^Gheorghe/*Gheorghe$ +^Ghimpu/*Ghimpu$ +^and/and$ +^Valeriu/*Valeriu$ +^Graur/*Graur$ +^,/,$ +^as well as/as well as$ +^a/a$ +^fourth/fourth$ +^person/person$ +^,/,$ +^Alexandru/*Alexandru$ +^Soltoianu/*Soltoianu$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^leader/leader$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^similar/similar$ +^clandestine/*clandestine$ +^movement/movement$ +^in/in$ +^northern/northern$ +^Bukovina/*Bukovina$ +^(/($ +^Bucovina/*Bucovina$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^were/be$ +^arrested/arrest$ +^and/and$ +^later/later$ +^sentenced/sentence$ +^to/to$ +^long/long$ +^prison/prison$ +^terms/term$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1990/1990$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^first/first$ +^free/free$ +^elections/election$ +^were/be$ +^held/hold$ +^for/for$ +^Parliament/Parliament$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^opposition/opposition$ +^Popular/Popular$ +^Front/Front$ +^all/all$ +^but/but$ +^winning/win$ +^them/prpers$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^government/government$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^Mircea/*Mircea$ +^Druc/*Druc$ +^,/,$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^leaders/leader$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Popular/Popular$ +^Front/Front$ +^,/,$ +^was/be$ +^formed/form$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Moldavian/*Moldavian$ +^SSR/SSR$ +^became/become$ +^SSR/SSR$ +^Moldova/Moldova$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^later/later$ +^the/the$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^of/of$ +^Moldova/Moldova$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^of/of$ +^Moldova/Moldova$ +^became/become$ +^independent/independent$ +^in/in$ +^1991/1991$ +^;/;$ +^its/prpers$ +^boundaries/boundary$ +^(/($ +^those/that$ +^established/establish$ +^on/on$ +^August/August$ +^2/2$ +^,/,$ +^1940/1940$ +^)/)$ +^remained/remain$ +^unchanged/unchanged$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^is/be$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^most/most$ +^linguistically/linguistically$ +^and/and$ +^culturally/culturally$ +^diverse/diverse$ +^regions/region$ +^on/on$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^nation/nation$ +^states/state$ +^that/that$ +^comprise/comprise$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^today/today$ +^are/be$ +^the/the$ +^post/post$ +^-/-$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^states/state$ +^Georgia/Georgia$ +^,/,$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^divisions/division$ +^include/include$ +^Krasnodar/*Krasnodar$ +^Krai/*Krai$ +^,/,$ +^Stavropol/*Stavropol$ +^Krai/*Krai$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^autonomous/autonomous$ +^republics/republic$ +^of/of$ +^Adygea/*Adygea$ +^,/,$ +^Karachay/*Karachay$ +^-/-$ +^Cherkessia/*Cherkessia$ +^,/,$ +^Kabardino/*Kabardino$ +^-/-$ +^Balkaria/*Balkaria$ +^,/,$ +^North/North$ +^Ossetia/Ossetia$ +^,/,$ +^Ingushetia/*Ingushetia$ +^,/,$ +^Chechnya/Chechnya$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Dagestan/*Dagestan$ +^./.$ +^Three/Three$ +^territories/territory$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^claim/claim$ +^independence/independence$ +^but/but$ +^are/be$ +^not/not$ +^universally/universally$ +^acknowledged/acknowledge$ +^as/as$ +^nation/nation$ +^states/state$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^international/international$ +^community/community$ +^:/:$ +^Abkhazia/*Abkhazia$ +^,/,$ +^Nagorno-Karabakh/*Nagorno-Karabakh$ +^and/and$ +^South/South$ +^Ossetia/Ossetia$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^northern/northern$ +^portion/portion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^is/be$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^Ciscaucasus/*Ciscaucasus$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^southern/southern$ +^portion/portion$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^Transcaucasus/*Transcaucasus$ +^./.$ +^Ancient/Ancient$ +^kingdoms/kingdom$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^included/include$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^,/,$ +^Albania/Albania$ +^,/,$ +^Colchis/*Colchis$ +^and/and$ +^Iberia/*Iberia$ +^,/,$ +^among/among$ +^others/others$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^kingdoms/kingdom$ +^were/be$ +^later/later$ +^incorporated/incorporate$ +^into/into$ +^various/various$ +^empires/empire$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^Media/Media$ +^,/,$ +^Achaemenid/*Achaemenid$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^,/,$ +^Parthian/*Parthian$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Sassanid/*Sassanid$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^./.$ +^By this time/By this time$ +^,/,$ +^Zoroastrianism/*Zoroastrianism$ +^had/have$ +^become/become$ +^the/the$ +^dominant/dominant$ +^religion/religion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^;/;$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^would/will$ +^go through/go# through$ +^two/two$ +^other/other$ +^religious/religious$ +^transformations/transformation$ +^./.$ +^Owing/Owe$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^rivalry/rivalry$ +^between/between$ +^Persia/Persia$ +^and/and$ +^Rome/Rome$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^later/later$ +^Byzantium/*Byzantium$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^latter/latter$ +^would/will$ +^invade/invade$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^several times/several times$ +^,/,$ +^although/although$ +^it/prpers$ +^was/be$ +^never/never$ +^able/able$ +^to/to$ +^hold/hold$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^because/because$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^and/and$ +^Georgia/Georgia$ +^had/have$ +^become/become$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^entities/entity$ +^,/,$ +^Christianity/Christianity$ +^began/begin$ +^to/to$ +^overtake/*overtake$ +^Zoroastrianism/*Zoroastrianism$ +^./.$ +^With/With$ +^the/the$ +^Islamic/Islamic$ +^conquest/conquest$ +^of/of$ +^Persia/Persia$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^region/region$ +^came/come$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^rule/rule$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Arabs/Arab$ +^./.$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^majority/majority$ +^of/of$ +^Georgia/Georgia$ +^maintained/maintain$ +^Christianity/Christianity$ +^and/and$ +^Georgian/*Georgian$ +^king/king$ +^David/David$ +^the/the$ +^Builder/Builder$ +^drove/drive$ +^the/the$ +^Muslims/Muslim$ +^out/out$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^region/region$ +^would/will$ +^later/later$ +^be/be$ +^conquered/conquer$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Seljuks/*Seljuks$ +^,/,$ +^Ottomans/*Ottomans$ +^,/,$ +^Mongols/*Mongols$ +^,/,$ +^local/local$ +^kingdoms/kingdom$ +^and/and$ +^khanates/*khanates$ +^,/,$ +^as well as/as well as$ +^,/,$ +^once again/once again$ +^,/,$ +^Persia/Persia$ +^,/,$ +^until/until$ +^its/prpers$ +^conquest/conquest$ +^by/by$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^region/region$ +^was/be$ +^unified/unify$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^single/single$ +^political/political$ +^entity/entity$ +^twice/twice$ +– +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^Civil War/Civil war$ +^(/($ +^Transcaucasian/*Transcaucasian$ +^Democratic/Democratic$ +^Federative/Federative$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^)/)$ +^from/from$ +^9/9$ +^April/April$ +^1918/1918$ +^to/to$ +^26/26$ +^May/May$ +^1918/1918$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^rule/rule$ +^(/($ +^Transcaucasian/*Transcaucasian$ +^SFSR/SFSR$ +^)/)$ +^from/from$ +^12/12$ +^March/March$ +^1922/1922$ +^to/to$ +^5/5$ +^December/December$ +^1936/1936$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^1940/1940$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Chechens/*Chechens$ +^and/and$ +^Ingush/*Ingush$ +^(/($ +^480,000/480,000$ +^altogether/altogether$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^along with/along with$ +^the/the$ +^Balkars/*Balkars$ +^,/,$ +^Karachays/*Karachays$ +^,/,$ +^Meskhetian/*Meskhetian$ +^Turks/*Turks$ +^(/($ +^120,000/120,000$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^Kurds/*Kurds$ +^and/and$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^Germans/German$ +^(/($ +^almost/almost$ +^200,000/200,000$ +^)/)$ +^were/be$ +^deported/deport$ +^en/*en$ +^masse/*masse$ +^to/to$ +^Central/Central$ +^Asia/Asia$ +^and/and$ +^Siberia/*Siberia$ +^./.$ +^Following/Follow$ +^the/the$ +^end/end$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^,/,$ +^Georgia/Georgia$ +^,/,$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^and/and$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^became/become$ +^independent/independent$ +^in/in$ +^1991/1991$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^most/most$ +^numerous/numerous$ +^peoples/peoples$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasian/*Caucasian$ +^-/-$ +^language/language$ +^family/family$ +^are/be$ +^Georgians/*Georgians$ +^(/($ +^4600000/4600000$ +^)/)$ +^;/;$ +^Chechens/*Chechens$ +^(/($ +^800,000/800,000$ +^)/)$ +^;/;$ +^and/and$ +^Avars/*Avars$ +^(/($ +^500,000/500,000$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Georgians/*Georgians$ +^are/be$ +^the/the$ +^only/only$ +^Caucasian/*Caucasian$ +^language/language$ +^-/-$ +^speaking/speak$ +^people/person$ +^who/who$ +^have/have$ +^their/prpers$ +^own/own$ +^independent/independent$ +^state/state$ +– +^Georgia/Georgia$ +^./.$ +^Others/Others$ +^of/of$ +^those/that$ +^peoples/peoples$ +^have/have$ +^republics/republic$ +^within/within$ +^the/the$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^Federation/Federation$ +^:/:$ +^Adyghe/*Adyghe$ +^(/($ +^Adygea/*Adygea$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^Cherkes/*Cherkes$ +^(/($ +^Karachay/*Karachay$ +^-/-$ +^Cherkessia/*Cherkessia$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^Kabardins/*Kabardins$ +^(/($ +^Kabardino/*Kabardino$ +^-/-$ +^Balkaria/*Balkaria$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^Ingush/*Ingush$ +^(/($ +^Ingushetia/*Ingushetia$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^Chechens/*Chechens$ +^(/($ +^Chechnya/*Chechnya$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^while/while$ +^Northeast/Northeast$ +^Caucasian/*Caucasian$ +^peoples/peoples$ +^mostly/mostly$ +^live/live$ +^in/in$ +^Dagestan/*Dagestan$ +^./.$ +^Abkhazians/*Abkhazians$ +^live/live$ +^in/in$ +^Abkhazia/*Abkhazia$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^is/be$ +^de/*de$ +^facto/*facto$ +^independent/independent$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^de/*de$ +^jure/*jure$ +^is/be$ +^an/a$ +^autonomous/autonomous$ +^republic/republic$ +^within/within$ +^Georgia/Georgia$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^has/have$ +^many/many$ +^economically/economically$ +^important/important$ +^minerals/mineral$ +^and/and$ +^energy/energy$ +^resources/resource$ +^,/,$ +^such as/such as$ +^:/:$ +^alunite/*alunite$ +^,/,$ +^gold/gold$ +^,/,$ +^chromium/chromium$ +^,/,$ +^copper/copper$ +^,/,$ +^iron/iron$ +^ore/ore$ +^,/,$ +^mercury/mercury$ +^,/,$ +^manganese/manganese$ +^,/,$ +^molybdenum/molybdenum$ +^,/,$ +^lead/lead$ +^,/,$ +^tungsten/tungsten$ +^,/,$ +^uranium/uranium$ +^,/,$ +^zinc/zinc$ +^,/,$ +^oil/oil$ +^,/,$ +^natural/natural$ +^gas/gas$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^coal/coal$ +^(/($ +^both/both$ +^hard/hard$ +^and/and$ +^brown/brown$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^operates/operate$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^significantly/significantly$ +^different/different$ +^fashion/fashion$ +^than/than$ +^a/a$ +^conventional/conventional$ +^(/($ +^i.e./i.e.$ +^,/,$ +^iron/iron$ +^core/core$ +^)/)$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^a/a$ +^conventional/conventional$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^windings/winding$ +^are/be$ +^very/very$ +^tightly/tightly$ +^coupled/*coupled$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^gain/gain$ +^is/be$ +^limited/limit$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^ratio/ratio$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^numbers/number$ +^of/of$ +^turns/turn$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^windings/winding$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^gain/gain$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^disruptive/*disruptive$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^significantly/significantly$ +^greater/great$ +^,/,$ +^since/since$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^instead/instead$ +^proportional/proportional$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^square root/square root$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^ratio/ratio$ +^of/of$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^and/and$ +^primary/primary$ +^inductances/inductance$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^coil/coil$ +^transfers/transfer$ +^energy/energy$ +^from/from$ +^one/one$ +^oscillating/oscillate$ +^resonant/resonant$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^(/($ +^the/the$ +^primary/primary$ +^)/)$ +^to/to$ +^the other/the other$ +^(/($ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^)/)$ +^over/over$ +^a/a$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^RF/RF$ +^cycles/cycle$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^the/the$ +^primary/primary$ +^energy/energy$ +^transfers/transfer$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^'s/'s$ +^output/output$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^increases/increase$ +^until/until$ +^all/all$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^available/available$ +^primary/primary$ +^energy/energy$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^transferred/transfer$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^(/($ +^less/less$ +^losses/loss$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Even/Even$ +^with/with$ +^significant/significant$ +^spark/spark$ +^gap/gap$ +^losses/loss$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^well/well$ +^designed/design$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^can/can$ +^transfer/transfer$ +^over/over$ +^85%/85%$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^energy/energy$ +^initially/initially$ +^stored/store$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^primary/primary$ +^capacitor/*capacitor$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^./.$ +^Modern/Modern$ +^high/high$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^enthusiasts/enthusiast$ +^usually/usually$ +^build/build$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coils/coil$ +^that/that$ +^are/be$ +^similar/similar$ +^to/to$ +^some/some$ +^of/of$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^'s/'s$ +" +^later/late$ +" +^air/air$ +^core/core$ +^designs/design$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^typically/typically$ +^consist/consist$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^primary/primary$ +^tank/tank$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^series/series$ +^LC/LC$ +^(/($ +^inductance/inductance$ +^-/-$ +^capacitance/*capacitance$ +^)/)$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^composed/compose$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^high/high$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^capacitor/*capacitor$ +^,/,$ +^spark/spark$ +^gap/gap$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^primary/primary$ +^coil/coil$ +^;/;$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^LC/LC$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^series/series$ +^resonant/resonant$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^consisting/consist$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^coil/coil$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^toroid/toroid$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^'s/'s$ +^original/original$ +^plans/plan$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^LC/LC$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^is/be$ +^composed/compose$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^loaded/load$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^coil/coil$ +^which/which$ +^is/be$ +^then/then$ +^placed/place$ +^in series/in series$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^large/large$ +^helical/*helical$ +^coil/coil$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^helical/*helical$ +^coil/coil$ +^was/be$ +^then/then$ +^connected/connect$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^toroid/toroid$ +^./.$ +^Most/Most$ +^modern/modern$ +^coils/coil$ +^use/use$ +^only/only$ +^a/a$ +^single/single$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^coil/coil$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^toroid/toroid$ +^actually/actually$ +^forms/form$ +^one/one$ +^terminal/terminal$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^capacitor/*capacitor$ +^,/,$ +^the other/the+other$ +^terminal/terminal$ +^being/be$ +^the/the$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^(/($ +^or/or$ +" +^ground/ground$ +" +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^primary/primary$ +^LC/LC$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^is/be$ +" +^tuned/tune$ +" +^so that/so that$ +^it/prpers$ +^will/will$ +^resonate/*resonate$ +^at/at$ +^the same/the same$ +^frequency/frequency$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^LC/LC$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^primary/primary$ +^and/and$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^coils/coil$ +^are/be$ +^magnetically/*magnetically$ +^coupled/*coupled$ +^,/,$ +^creating/create$ +^a/a$ +^dual/dual$ +^-/-$ +^tuned/tune$ +^resonant/resonant$ +^air/air$ +^-/-$ +^core/core$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^unlike/unlike$ +^a/a$ +^conventional/conventional$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^may/may$ +^couple/couple$ +^97%/97%$ ++ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^magnetic fields/magnetic field$ +^between/between$ +^windings/winding$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^'s/'s$ +^windings/winding$ +^are/be$ +" +^loosely/*loosely$ +" +^coupled/*coupled$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^primary/primary$ +^and/and$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^typically/typically$ +^sharing/share$ +^only/only$ +^10/10$ +– +^20%/20%$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^respective/respective$ +^magnetic fields/magnetic field$ +^./.$ +^Earlier/Early$ +^oil/oil$ +^insulated/*insulated$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coils/coil$ +^needed/need$ +^large/large$ +^and/and$ +^long/long$ +^insulations/*insulations$ +^at/at$ +^their/prpers$ +^connections/connection$ +^to/to$ +^prevent/prevent$ +^discharge/discharge$ +^in/in$ +^air/air$ +^./.$ +^Later/Late$ +^version/version$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coils/coil$ +^spread/spread$ +^their/prpers$ +^electric/electric$ +^fields/field$ +^over/over$ +^large/large$ +^distances/distance$ +^to/to$ +^prevent/prevent$ +^high/high$ +^electrical/electrical$ +^stresses/stress$ +^in the first place/in the first place$ +^,/,$ +^thereby/thereby$ +^allowing/allow$ +^operation/operation$ +^in/in$ +^free/free$ +^air/air$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^a/a$ +^Doubly/Doubly$ +^Resonant/Resonant$ +^Solid/Solid$ +^State/State$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^Coil/Coil$ +^(/($ +^DRSSTC/*DRSSTC$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^electronic/electronic$ +^switching/switch$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^SSTC/SSTC$ +^is/be$ +^combined/combine$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^resonant/resonant$ +^primary/primary$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^spark/spark$ +^-/-$ +^gap/gap$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^resonant/resonant$ +^primary/primary$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^is/be$ +^formed/form$ +^by/by$ +^connecting/connect$ +^a/a$ +^capacitor/*capacitor$ +^in series/in series$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^primary/primary$ +^winding/winding$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^coil/coil$ +^,/,$ +^so that/so that$ +^the/the$ +^combination/combination$ +^forms/form$ +^a/a$ +^series/series$ +^tank/tank$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^resonant/resonant$ +^frequency/frequency$ +^near/near$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^./.$ +^Because of/Because of$ +^the/the$ +^additional/additional$ +^resonant/resonant$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^,/,$ +^one/one$ +^manual/manual$ +^and/and$ +^one/one$ +^adaptive/*adaptive$ +^tuning/tuning$ +^adjustment/adjustment$ +^are/be$ +^necessary/necessary$ +^./.$ +^Also/Also$ +^,/,$ +^an/a$ +^interrupter/*interrupter$ +^is/be$ +^usually/usually$ +^used/use$ +^to/to$ +^reduce/reduce$ +^the/the$ +^duty/duty$ +^cycle/cycle$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^switching/switch$ +^bridge/bridge$ +^,/,$ +^in order to/in order to$ +^improve/improve$ +^peak/peak$ +^power/power$ +^capabilities/capability$ +^;/;$ +^similarly/similarly$ +^,/,$ +^IGBTs/*IGBTs$ +^are/be$ +^more/more$ +^popular/popular$ +^in/in$ +^this/this$ +^application/application$ +^than/than$ +^bipolar/bipolar$ +^transistors/transistor$ +^or/or$ +^MOSFETs/*MOSFETs$ +^,/,$ +^due to/due to$ +^their/prpers$ +^superior/superior$ +^power/power$ +^handling/handle$ +^characteristics/characteristic$ +^./.$ +^Performance/Performance$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^DRSSTC/*DRSSTC$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^comparable/comparable$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^medium/medium$ +^power/power$ +^spark/spark$ +^gap/gap$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^efficiency/efficiency$ +^(/($ +^as/as$ +^measured/measure$ +^by/by$ +^spark/spark$ +^length/length$ +^versus/*versus$ +^input/input$ +^power/power$ +^)/)$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^significantly/significantly$ +^greater/great$ +^than/than$ +^a/a$ +^spark/spark$ +^gap/gap$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^operating/operate$ +^at/at$ +^the same/the same$ +^input/input$ +^power/power$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^typical/typical$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^(/($ +^above/above$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^spark/spark$ +^gap/gap$ +^'s/'s$ +^short/short$ +^circuiting/*circuiting$ +^action/action$ +^prevents/prevent$ +^high/high$ +^frequency/frequency$ +^oscillations/*oscillations$ +^from/from$ +" +^backing/back$ +^up/up$ +" +^into/into$ +^the/the$ +^supply/supply$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^alternate/alternate$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^,/,$ +^high/high$ +^amplitude/amplitude$ +^high/high$ +^frequency/frequency$ +^oscillations/*oscillations$ +^that/that$ +^appear/appear$ +^across/across$ +^the/the$ +^capacitor/*capacitor$ +^also/also$ +^are/be$ +^applied/apply$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^supply/supply$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^'s/'s$ +^winding/winding$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^can/can$ +^induce/induce$ +^corona/*corona$ +^discharges/discharge$ +^between/between$ +^turns/turn$ +^that/that$ +^weaken/weaken$ +^and/and$ +^eventually/eventually$ +^destroy/destroy$ +^the/the$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^'s/'s$ +^insulation/*insulation$ +^./.$ +^Experienced/Experience$ +^Tesla/Tesla$ +^coil/coil$ +^builders/builder$ +^almost exclusively/almost exclusively$ +^use/use$ +^the/the$ +^top/top$ +^circuit/circuit$ +^,/,$ +^often/often$ +^augmenting/augment$ +^it/prpers$ +^with/with$ +^low/low$ +^pass/pass$ +^filters/filter$ +^(/($ +^resistor/resistor$ +^and/and$ +^capacitor/*capacitor$ +^(/($ +^RC/RC$ +^)/)$ +^networks/network$ +^)/)$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^supply/supply$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^and/and$ +^spark/spark$ +^gap/gap$ +^to/to$ +^help/help$ +^protect/protect$ +^the/the$ +^supply/supply$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^is/be$ +^especially/especially$ +^important/important$ +^when/when$ +^using/use$ +^transformers/transformer$ +^with/with$ +^fragile/fragile$ +^high/high$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^windings/winding$ +^,/,$ +^such as/such as$ +^Neon/Neon$ +^-/-$ +^sign/sign$ +^transformers/transformer$ +^(/($ +^NSTs/*NSTs$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Regardless/Regardless$ +^of/of$ +^which/which$ +^configuration/configuration$ +^is/be$ +^used/use$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^HV/HV$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^must/must$ +^be/be$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^type/type$ +^that/that$ +^self/*self$ +^-/-$ +^limits/limit$ +^its/prpers$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^current/current$ +^by means of/by means of$ +^internal/internal$ +^leakage/leakage$ +^inductance/inductance$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^normal/normal$ +^(/($ +^low/low$ +^leakage/leakage$ +^inductance/inductance$ +^)/)$ +^high/high$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^must/must$ +^use/use$ +^an/a$ +^external/external$ +^limiter/limiter$ +^(/($ +^sometimes/sometimes$ +^called/call$ +^a/a$ +^ballast/ballast$ +^)/)$ +^to/to$ +^limit/limit$ +^current/current$ +^./.$ +^NSTs/*NSTs$ +^are/be$ +^designed/design$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^high/high$ +^leakage/leakage$ +^inductance/inductance$ +^to/to$ +^limit/limit$ +^their/prpers$ +^short circuit/short circuit$ +^current/current$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^safe/safe$ +^level/level$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^coil/coil$ +^'s/'s$ +^energy/energy$ +^(/($ +^and/and$ +^output/output$ +^voltage/voltage$ +^)/)$ +^continue/continue$ +^to/to$ +^increase/increase$ +^,/,$ 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+^./.$ +^The/The$ +^leader/leader$ +^tapers/taper$ +^and/and$ +^branches/branch$ +^into/into$ +^thousands/thousand$ +^of/of$ +^thinner/thin$ +^,/,$ +^cooler/cool$ +^,/,$ +^hairlike/*hairlike$ +^discharges/discharge$ +^(/($ +^called/call$ +^streamers/*streamers$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^streamers/*streamers$ +^look like/look# like$ +^a/a$ +^bluish/bluish$ +" +^haze/haze$ +" +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^ends/end$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^more/more$ +^luminous/luminous$ +^leaders/leader$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^streamers/*streamers$ +^that/that$ +^actually/actually$ +^transfer/transfer$ +^charge/charge$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^leaders/leader$ +^and/and$ +^toroid/toroid$ +^to/to$ +^nearby/nearby$ +^space/space$ +^charge/charge$ +^regions/region$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^displacement/displacement$ +^currents/current$ +^from/from$ +^countless/countless$ +^streamers/*streamers$ +^all/all$ +^feed/feed$ +^into/into$ +^the/the$ +^leader/leader$ +^,/,$ +^helping/help$ 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United States$ +^paid/pay$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ +^25000000/25000000$ +^in/in$ +^1921/1921$ +^,/,$ +^seven/seven$ +^years/year$ +^after/after$ +^completion/completion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^canal/canal$ +^,/,$ +^for/for$ +^redress/redress$ +^of/of$ +^President/President$ +^Roosevelt/Roosevelt$ +^'s/'s$ +^role/role$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^creation/creation$ +^of/of$ +^Panama/Panama$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ +^recognised/recognise$ +^Panama/Panama$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^terms/term$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Thomson/Thomson$ +^Urrutia/*Urrutia$ +^Treaty/Treaty$ +^./.$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ +^was/be$ +^engulfed/*engulfed$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Year/Year$ +^-/-$ +^Long/Long$ +^War/War$ +^with/with$ +^Peru/Peru$ +^over/over$ +^a/a$ +^territorial/territorial$ +^dispute/dispute$ +^involving/involve$ +^the/the$ +^Amazonas/*Amazonas$ +^department/department$ +^and/and$ +^its/prpers$ +^capital/capital$ +^Leticia/Leticia$ +^./.$ +^Soon/Soon$ +^after/after$ +^,/,$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ 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+^1948/1948$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^ensuing/*ensuing$ +^riots/riot$ +^in/in$ +^Bogotá/*Bogotá$ +^,/,$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^El/*El$ +^Bogotazo/*Bogotazo$ +^,/,$ +^spread/spread$ +^throughout/throughout$ +^the/the$ +^country/country$ +^and/and$ +^claimed/claim$ +^the/the$ +^lives/life$ +^of/of$ +^at least/at least$ +^180/180$ +^,/,$ +^000/000$ +^Colombians/Colombian$ +^./.$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ +^entered/enter$ +^the/the$ +^Korean/Korean$ +^War/War$ +^when/when$ +^Laureano/Laureano$ +^Gómez/Gómez$ +^was/be$ +^elected/elect$ +^as/as$ +^President/President$ +^./.$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^only/only$ +^Latin American/Latin American$ +^country/country$ +^to/to$ +^join/join$ +^the/the$ +^war/war$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^direct/direct$ +^military/military$ +^role/role$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^an/a$ +^ally/ally$ +^of/of$ +^the United States/the United States$ +^,/,$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ +^'s/'s$ +^mission/mission$ +^was/be$ +^to/to$ +^help/help$ +^win/win$ +^the/the$ +^war/war$ 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+^./.$ +^After/After$ +^Rojas/Rojas$ +^'/'s$ +^deposition/deposition$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Colombian/Colombian$ +^Conservative/Conservative$ +^Party/Party$ +^and/and$ +^Colombian/Colombian$ +^Liberal/Liberal$ +^Party/Party$ +^agreed to/agree# to$ +^create/create$ +^the/the$ +^National/National$ +^Front/Front$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^coalition/coalition$ +^which/which$ +^would/will$ +^jointly/jointly$ +^govern/govern$ +^the/the$ +^country/country$ +^./.$ +^Under/Under$ +^the/the$ +^deal/deal$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^presidency/presidency$ +^would/will$ +^alternate/alternate$ +^between/between$ +^conservatives/*conservatives$ +^and/and$ +^liberals/*liberals$ +^every/every$ +^4/4$ +^years/year$ +^for/for$ +^16/16$ +^years/year$ +^;/;$ +^the/the$ +^two/two$ +^parties/party$ +^would/will$ +^have/have$ +^parity/parity$ +^in/in$ +^all/all$ +^other/other$ +^elective/elective$ +^offices/office$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^National/National$ +^Front/Front$ +^ended/end$ +^La/*La$ +^Violencia/*Violencia$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^National/National$ +^Front/Front$ +^administrations/administration$ +^attempted/attempt$ +^to/to$ +^institute/institute$ +^far-reaching/far-reaching$ +^social/social$ +^and/and$ +^economic/economic$ +^reforms/reform$ +^in/in$ +^cooperation/cooperation$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Alliance/Alliance$ +^for/for$ +^Progress/Progress$ +^./.$ +^In the end/In the end$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^contradictions/contradiction$ +^between/between$ +^each/each$ +^successive/successive$ +^Liberal/Liberal$ +^and/and$ +^Conservative/Conservative$ +^administration/administration$ +^made/make$ +^the/the$ +^results/result$ +^decidedly/*decidedly$ +^mixed/mixed$ +^./.$ +^Despite/Despite$ +^the/the$ +^progress/progress$ +^in/in$ +^certain/certain$ +^sectors/sector$ +^,/,$ +^many/many$ +^social/social$ +^and/and$ +^political/political$ +^problems/problem$ +^continued/continue$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^guerrilla groups/guerrilla group$ +^were/be$ +^formally/formally$ +^created/create$ +^such as/such as$ 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+^lined/line$ +^with/with$ +^rocks/rock$ +^and/and$ +^plastered/plaster$ +^with/with$ +^cement/cement$ +^to/to$ +^prevent/prevent$ +^direct/direct$ +^contact/contact$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^earth/earth$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Yazd/*Yazd$ +^and/and$ +^Kerman/*Kerman$ +^,/,$ +^In addition to/In addition to$ +^cemeteries/cemetery$ +^,/,$ +^orthodox/*orthodox$ +^Zoroastrians/*Zoroastrians$ +^continued/continue$ +^to/to$ +^maintain/maintain$ +^a/a$ +^dakhma/*dakhma$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^1970/1970$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^dakhmas/*dakhmas$ +^were/be$ +^shut down/shut# down$ +^by/by$ +^law/law$ +^./.$ +^Following/Follow$ +^the/the$ +^rapid/rapid$ +^expansion/expansion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Indian/Indian$ +^cities/city$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^squat/squat$ +^buildings/building$ +^are/be$ +^today/today$ +^in/in$ +^or/or$ +^near/near$ +^population/population$ +^centres/centre$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^separated from/separated from$ +^the/the$ +^metropolitan/metropolitan$ +^bustle/bustle$ +^by/by$ +^forest/forest$ +^gardens/garden$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Parsi/*Parsi$ +^Zoroastrian/Zoroastrian$ +^tradition/tradition$ +^,/,$ +^exposure/exposure$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^dead/dead$ +^is/be$ +^additionally/additionally$ +^considered/consider$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^an/a$ +^individual/individual$ +^'s/'s$ +^final/final$ +^act/act$ +^of/of$ +^charity/charity$ +^,/,$ +^providing/provide$ +^the/the$ +^birds/bird$ +^with/with$ +^what/what$ +^would/will$ +^otherwise/otherwise$ +^be/be$ +^destroyed/destroy$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^several/several$ +^decades/decade$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^late/late$ +^twentieth/twentieth$ +^and/and$ +^early/early$ +^twenty-first/twenty-first$ +^century/century$ +^the/the$ +^population/population$ +^of/of$ +^birds/bird$ +^of/of$ +^prey/prey$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Indian/Indian$ +^subcontinent/*subcontinent$ +^declined/decline$ +^,/,$ +^by/by$ +^99.9%/99.9%$ +^as/as$ +^of/of$ +^2008/2008$ +^,/,$ +^primarily/primarily$ +^due to/due to$ +^diclofenac/*diclofenac$ +^poisoning/poisoning$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^birds/bird$ +^following/follow$ +^the/the$ +^introduction/introduction$ +^of/of$ +^that/that$ +^drug/drug$ +^for/for$ +^livestock/livestock$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^1990/1990$ +^,/,$ +^until/until$ +^banned/ban$ +^for/for$ +^cattle/cattle$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Indian/Indian$ +^government/government$ +^in/in$ +^2006/2006$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^few/few$ +^surviving/surviving$ +^birds/bird$ +^are/be$ +^often/often$ +^unable/unable$ +^to/to$ +^fully/fully$ +^consume/consume$ +^the/the$ +^bodies/body$ +^./.$ +^Parsi/*Parsi$ +^communities/community$ +^in/in$ +^India/India$ +^are/be$ +^currently/currently$ +^evaluating/evaluate$ +^captive/captive$ +^breeding/breed$ +^of/of$ +^vultures/vulture$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^use/use$ +^of/of$ +" +^solar/solar$ +^concentrators/concentrator$ +" +^(/($ +^which/which$ +^are/be$ +^essentially/essentially$ +^large/large$ +^mirrors/mirror$ +^)/)$ +^to/to$ +^accelerate/accelerate$ +^decomposition/decomposition$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^forced/force$ +^to/to$ +^resort to/resort# to$ +^burial/burial$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^solar/solar$ +^collectors/collector$ +^only/only$ +^work/work$ +^in/in$ +^clear/clear$ +^weather/weather$ +^./.$ +^Vultures/Vulture$ +^formerly/formerly$ +^disposed/dispose$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^body/body$ +^in/in$ +^minutes/minute$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^no/no$ +^other/other$ +^method/method$ +^has/have$ +^proven/prove$ +^fully/fully$ +^effective/effective$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^right/right$ +^to/to$ +^use/use$ +^the/the$ +^Towers/Tower$ +^of/of$ +^Silence/Silence$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^much/much$ +^debated/debate$ +^issue/issue$ +^among/among$ +^the/the$ +^Parsi/*Parsi$ +^community/community$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^facilities/facility$ +^are/be$ +^usually/usually$ +^managed/manage$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^anjumans/*anjumans$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^predominantly/predominantly$ +^conservative/conservative$ +^local/local$ +^Zoroastrian/Zoroastrian$ +^associations/association$ +^(/($ +^usually/usually$ +^having/have$ +^five/five$ +^priests/priest$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^nine/nine$ +^-/-$ +^member/member$ +^board/board$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In accordance with/In accordance with$ +^Indian/Indian$ +^statutes/statute$ +^,/,$ +^these/this$ +^associations/association$ +^have/have$ +^domestic/domestic$ +^authority/authority$ +^over/over$ +^trust/trust$ +^properties/property$ +^and/and$ +^have/have$ +^the/the$ +^right/right$ +^to/to$ +^grant/grant$ +^or/or$ +^restrict/restrict$ +^entry/entry$ +^and/and$ +^use/use$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^result/result$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^anjumans/anjuman$ +^frequently/frequently$ +^prohibit/prohibit$ +^the/the$ +^use/use$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^offspring/offspring$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +" +^mixed/mixed$ +^marriage/marriage$ +" +^,/,$ +^that/that$ +^is/be$ +^,/,$ +^where/where$ +^one/one$ +^parent/parent$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^Parsi/Parsi$ +^and/and$ +^the other/the other$ +^is/be$ +^not/not$ +^./.$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^city/city$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^of/of$ +^Dagestan/Dagestan$ +^,/,$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^,/,$ +^located/locate$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^,/,$ +^north/north$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Azerbaijani/*Azerbaijani$ +^border/border$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^southernmost/*southernmost$ +^city/city$ +^in/in$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^second/second$ +^most/most$ +^important/important$ +^city/city$ +^of/of$ +^Dagestan/Dagestan$ +^./.$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^occupies/occupy$ +^the/the$ +^very/very$ +^narrow/narrow$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^primary/primary$ +^,/,$ +^gateway/gateway$ +^crossing/crossing$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Eurasian/*Eurasian$ +^steppes/steppe$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^north/north$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Middle/Middle$ +^East/East$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^south/south$ +^,/,$ +^through/through$ +^a/a$ +^very/very$ +^narrow/narrow$ +^coastal/coastal$ +^crossing/crossing$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^Mountains/Mountain$ +^./.$ +^Often/Often$ +^identified/identify$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^legendary/legendary$ +^Gates/Gate$ +^of/of$ +^Alexander/Alexander$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^claims/claim$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^the/the$ +^oldest/old$ +^city/city$ +^in/in$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^(/($ +^8th century BCE/8th century BCE$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Since/Since$ +^antiquity/antiquity$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^value/value$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^area/area$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^gateway/gateway$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^understood/understand$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^has/have$ +^archaeological/archaeological$ +^structures/structure$ +^over/over$ +^5,000/5,000$ +^years/year$ +^old/old$ +^./.$ +^As a result of/As a result of$ +^this/this$ +^geographical/geographical$ +^particularity/*particularity$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^developed/develop$ +^between/between$ +^two/two$ +^walls/wall$ +^,/,$ +^stretching/stretch$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^mountains/mountain$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^sea/sea$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^fortifications/fortification$ +^were/be$ +^continuously/continuously$ +^employed/employ$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^millennium/millennium$ +^and/and$ +^a/a$ +^half/half$ +^,/,$ +^longer/long$ +^than/than$ +^any/any$ +^other/other$ +^extant/*extant$ +^fortress/fortress$ +^in the world/in the world$ +^./.$ +^Over/Over$ +^the/the$ +^years/year$ +^,/,$ +^different/different$ +^nations/nation$ +^have/have$ +^given/give$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^different/different$ +^names/name$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^all/all$ +^connected/connect$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^word/word$ +^gate/gate$ +^;/;$ +^its/prpers$ +^name/name$ +^in/in$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^is/be$ +^Darband/*Darband$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^means/mean$ +" +^closed/close$ +^gates/gate$ +" +^./.$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^has/have$ +^an/a$ +^important/important$ +^strategic/strategic$ +^location/location$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^:/:$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^is/be$ +^situated/situate$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^narrow/narrow$ +^,/,$ +^three/three$ +^-/-$ +^kilometre/kilometre$ +^strip/strip$ +^of/of$ +^land/land$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^mountains/mountain$ +^./.$ +^Historically/Historically$ +^,/,$ +^this/this$ +^position/position$ +^allowed/allow$ +^the/the$ +^rulers/ruler$ +^of/of$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^to/to$ +^control/control$ +^land/land$ +^traffic/traffic$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Eurasian/*Eurasian$ +^Steppe/Steppe$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Middle/Middle$ +^East/East$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^only/only$ +^other/other$ +^practicable/practicable$ +^crossing/crossing$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^ridge/*ridge$ +^was/be$ +^over/over$ +^the/the$ +^Darial/*Darial$ +^Gorge/Gorge$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^first/first$ 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+^beginning/beginning$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^6th century CE/6th century CE$ +^,/,$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^was/be$ +^re-established/re-establish$ +^by/by$ +^Kavadh/*Kavadh$ +^I/I$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Sassanid/*Sassanid$ +^dynasty/dynasty$ +^of/of$ +^Persia/Persia$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^20/20$ +^-/-$ +^metre/metre$ +^(/($ +^66/66$ +^ft/ft$ +^)/)$ +^high/high$ +^walls/wall$ +^with/with$ +^thirty/thirty$ +^north/north$ +^-/-$ +^looking/look$ +^towers/tower$ +^are/be$ +^believed/believe$ +^to/to$ +^belong/belong$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^time/time$ +^of/of$ +^Kavadh/*Kavadh$ +^'s/'s$ +^son/son$ +^,/,$ +^Khosrau/*Khosrau$ +^I/I$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^chronicler/chronicler$ +^Movses/*Movses$ +^Kagankatvatsi/*Kagankatvatsi$ +^wrote about/write+about$ +" +^the/the$ +^wondrous/*wondrous$ +^walls/wall$ +^,/,$ +^for/for$ +^whose/whose$ +^construction/construction$ +^the/the$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^kings/king$ +^exhausted/exhaust$ +^our/our$ +^country/country$ +^,/,$ +^recruiting/*recruiting$ +^architects/architect$ +^and/and$ +^collecting/collect$ +^building/build$ +^materials/material$ +^with a view to/with a view to$ +^constructing/construct$ +^a/a$ +^great/great$ +^edifice/edifice$ +^stretching/stretch$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^Mountains/Mountain$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Great/Great$ +^Eastern/Eastern$ +^Sea/Sea$ +^./.$" + +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^became/become$ +^a/a$ +^strong/strong$ +^military/military$ +^outpost/*outpost$ +^and/and$ +^harbour/harbour$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Sassanid/*Sassanid$ +^empire/empire$ +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^5th and 6th centuries/5th and 6th centuries$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^also/also$ +^became/become$ +^an/a$ +^important/important$ +^centre/centre$ +^for/for$ +^spreading/spread$ +^the/the$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^faith/faith$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^./.$ +^Movses/*Movses$ +^Kagankatvatsi/*Kagankatvatsi$ +^left/leave$ +^a/a$ +^graphic/graphic$ +^description/description$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^sack/sack$ +^of/of$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^hordes/horde$ +^of/of$ +^Tong/*Tong$ +^Yabghu/*Yabghu$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Western/Western$ +^Turkic/*Turkic$ +^Khaganate/*Khaganate$ +^in/in$ +^627/627$ +^./.$ +^His/Prpers$ +^successor/successor$ +^,/,$ +^Böri/*Böri$ +^Shad/*Shad$ +^,/,$ +^proved/prove$ +^unable/unable$ +^to/to$ +^consolidate/consolidate$ +^Tong/*Tong$ +^Yabghu/*Yabghu$ +^'s/'s$ +^conquests/conquest$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^was/be$ +^retaken/retake$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Persians/Persian$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^654/654$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^was/be$ +^captured/capture$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Arabs/Arab$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^transformed/transform$ +^it/prpers$ +^into/into$ +^an/a$ +^important/important$ +^administrative/administrative$ +^centre/centre$ +^and/and$ +^introduced/introduce$ +^Islam/*Islam$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^area/area$ +^./.$ +^Because of/Because of$ +^its/prpers$ 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+^lasted/last$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^years/year$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^thirteenth/thirteenth$ +^century/century$ +^./.$ +^Excavations/Excavation$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^eastern/eastern$ +^side/side$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^,/,$ +^opposite/opposite$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^,/,$ +^revealed/reveal$ +^the/the$ +^Great/Great$ +^Wall/Wall$ +^of/of$ +^Gorgan/*Gorgan$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^eastern/eastern$ +^counterpart/*counterpart$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^wall/wall$ +^and/and$ +^fortifications/fortification$ +^of/of$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^./.$ +^Similar/Similar$ +^Sassanian/*Sassanian$ +^defensive/defensive$ +^fortifications/fortification$ +^there/there$ +— +^massive/massive$ +^forts/fort$ +^,/,$ +^garrison/*garrison$ +^towns/town$ +^,/,$ +^long/long$ +^walls/wall$ +— +^also/also$ +^run/run$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^sea/sea$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^mountains/mountain$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Caliph/Caliph$ +^Harun/*Harun$ +^al/*al$ +^-/-$ +^Rashid/*Rashid$ +^spent/spend$ +^time/time$ +^living/live$ +^in/in$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^and/and$ +^brought/bring$ +^it/prpers$ +^into/into$ +^great/great$ +^repute/*repute$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^seat/seat$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^arts/art$ +^and/and$ +^commerce/commerce$ +^./.$ +^According to/According to$ +^Arab/Arab$ +^historians/historian$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^population/population$ +^exceeding/exceed$ +^50,000/50,000$ +^,/,$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^largest/large$ +^city/city$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^9th century/9th century$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^10th century/10th century$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^collapse/collapse$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Arab/Arab$ +^Caliphate/*Caliphate$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^became/become$ +^the/the$ +^capital/capital$ +^of/of$ +^an/a$ +^emirate/emirate$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^emirate/emirate$ +^often/often$ +^fought/fight$ +^losing/lose$ +^wars/war$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^neighbouring/neighbouring$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^state/state$ +^of/of$ +^Sarir/*Sarir$ +^,/,$ +^allowing/allow$ +^Sarir/*Sarir$ +^to/to$ +^occasionally/occasionally$ +^manipulate/manipulate$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^'s/'s$ +^politics/politics$ +^./.$ +^Despite/Despite$ +^that/that$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^emirate/emirate$ +^outlived/*outlived$ +^its/prpers$ +^rival/rival$ +^and/and$ +^continued/continue$ +^to/to$ +^flourish/*flourish$ +^at the time of/at the time of$ +^the/the$ +^Mongol/*Mongol$ +^invasion/invasion$ +^in/in$ +^1239/1239$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^14th century/14th century$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^was/be$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^by/by$ +^Timur/*Timur$ +^'s/'s$ +^armies/army$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1437/1437$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^fell/fall$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Shirvanshahs/*Shirvanshahs$ +^of/of$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^16th century/16th century$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^arena/arena$ +^for/for$ +^wars/war$ +^between/between$ +^Turkey/Turkey$ +^and/and$ +^Persia/Persia$ +^ruled/rule$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Iranian/Iranian$ +^Safavid/*Safavid$ +^dynasty/dynasty$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Ottoman/*Ottoman$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^gained/gain$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^following/follow$ +^the/the$ +^Battle/Battle$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Torches/Torch$ +^in/in$ +^1583/1583$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Ottoman/*Ottoman$ +^ownership/ownership$ +^was/be$ +^secured/secure$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Treaty/Treaty$ +^of/of$ +^Istanbul/Istanbul$ +^of/of$ +^1590/1590$ +^./.$ +^By/By$ +^the/the$ +^1735/1735$ +^Ganja/*Ganja$ +^treaty/treaty$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^fell/fall$ +^within/within$ +^the/the$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^state/state$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1722/1722$ +^,/,$ +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^Russo/*Russo$ +^-/-$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^War/War$ +^,/,$ +^Peter/Peter$ +^the/the$ +^Great/Great$ +^of/of$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^wrested/*wrested$ +^the/the$ +^town/town$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^Persians/Persian$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^in/in$ +^1736/1736$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^supremacy/supremacy$ +^of/of$ +^Nadir/Nadir$ +^Shah/*Shah$ +^was/be$ +^again/again$ +^recognised/recognise$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1747/1747$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^became/become$ +^the/the$ +^capital/capital$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^Khanate/*Khanate$ +^of/of$ +^the same/the same$ +^name/name$ +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^Expedition/Expedition$ +^of/of$ +^1796/1796$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^was/be$ +^stormed/*stormed$ +^by/by$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^forces/force$ +^under/under$ +^Valerian/*Valerian$ +^Zubov/*Zubov$ +^./.$ +^As a consequence/As a consequence$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Treaty/Treaty$ +^of/of$ +^Gulistan/*Gulistan$ +^of/of$ +^1813/1813$ +— +^between/between$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^and/and$ +^Persia/Persia$ +— +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^became/become$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^large/large$ +^portion/portion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^walls/wall$ +^and/and$ +^several/several$ +^watchtowers/watchtower$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^preserved/preserve$ +^in/in$ +^reasonable/reasonable$ +^shape/shape$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^present/present$ +^day/day$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^walls/wall$ +^,/,$ +^reaching/reach$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^sea/sea$ +^,/,$ +^date/date$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^6th century/6th century$ +^,/,$ +^Sassanid/*Sassanid$ +^dynasty/dynasty$ +^period/period$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^city/city$ +^has/have$ +^a/a$ +^well/well$ +^-/-$ +^preserved/preserve$ +^citadel/citadel$ +^,/,$ +^enclosing/enclose$ +^an/a$ +^area/area$ +^of/of$ +^4.5/4.5$ +^hectares/hectare$ +^(/($ +^11/11$ +^acres/acre$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^enclosed/enclose$ +^by/by$ +^strong/strong$ +^walls/wall$ +^./.$ +^Historical/Historical$ +^attractions/attraction$ +^include/include$ +^the/the$ +^baths/bath$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^cisterns/*cisterns$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^old/old$ +^cemeteries/cemetery$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^caravanserai/*caravanserai$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^18th/18$ +^-/-$ +^century/century$ +^Khan/*Khan$ +^'s/'s$ +^mausoleum/mausoleum$ +^,/,$ +^as well as/as well as$ +^several/several$ +^mosques/mosque$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^oldest/old$ +^mosque/mosque$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^Juma/*Juma$ +^Mosque/Mosque$ +^,/,$ +^built/build$ +^over/over$ +^a/a$ +^6th/6$ +^-/-$ +^century/century$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^basilica/basilica$ +^;/;$ +^it/prpers$ +^has/have$ +^a/a$ +^15th/15$ +^-/-$ +^century/century$ +^madrassa/*madrassa$ +^./.$ +^Other/Other$ +^shrines/*shrines$ +^include/include$ +^the/the$ +^17th/17$ +^-/-$ +^century/century$ +^Kyrhlyar/*Kyrhlyar$ +^mosque/mosque$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Bala/*Bala$ +^mosque/mosque$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^18th/18$ +^-/-$ +^century/century$ +^Chertebe/*Chertebe$ +^mosque/mosque$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^modern/modern$ +^city/city$ +^is/be$ +^built/build$ +^near/near$ +^the/the$ +^western/western$ +^shores/shore$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^,/,$ +^south/south$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Rubas/*Rubas$ +^River/River$ +^,/,$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^slopes/slope$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Tabasaran/*Tabasaran$ +^Mountains/Mountain$ +^(/($ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Bigger/Big$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^range/range$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^is/be$ +^well/well$ +^served/serve$ +^by/by$ +^public/public$ +^transport/transport$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^its/prpers$ +^own/own$ +^harbour/harbour$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^railway/railway$ +^going/go$ +^south/south$ +^to/to$ +^Baku/*Baku$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^road/road$ +^from/from$ +^Baku/*Baku$ +^to/to$ +^Rostov/*Rostov$ +^-/-$ +^on/*on$ +^-/-$ +^Don/*Don$ +^./.$ +^To/To$ +^the/the$ +^north/north$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^town/town$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^monument/monument$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Kirk/*Kirk$ +^-/-$ +^lar/*lar$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +^forty/forty$ +^heroes/hero$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^fell/fall$ +^defending/defend$ +^Dagestan/Dagestan$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^Arabs/Arab$ +^in/in$ +^728/728$ +^./.$ +^To/To$ +^the/the$ +^south/south$ +^lies/lie$ +^the/the$ +^seaward/*seaward$ +^extremity/extremity$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasian/*Caucasian$ +^wall/wall$ +^(/($ +^fifty/fifty$ +^metres/metre$ +^long/long$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^otherwise/otherwise$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^Alexander/Alexander$ +^'s/'s$ +^Wall/Wall$ +^,/,$ +^blocking/block$ +^the/the$ +^narrow/narrow$ +^pass/pass$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Iron/Iron$ +^Gate/Gate$ +^or/or$ +^Caspian/*Caspian$ +^Gates/Gate$ +^(/($ +^Portae/*Portae$ +^Athanae/*Athanae$ +^or/or$ +^Portae/*Portae$ +^Caspiae/*Caspiae$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^,/,$ +^when/when$ +^complete/complete$ +^,/,$ +^had/have$ +^a/a$ +^height/height$ +^of/of$ +^9/9$ +^m/*m$ +^(/($ +^29/29$ +^ft/ft$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^was/be$ +^about/about$ +^3/3$ +^m/*m$ +^(/($ +^10/10$ +^ft/ft$ +^)/)$ +^thick/thick$ +^and/and$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^its/prpers$ +^iron/iron$ +^gates/gate$ +^and/and$ +^numerous/numerous$ +^watchtowers/watchtower$ +^,/,$ +^formed/form$ +^a/a$ +^valuable/valuable$ +^defence/defence$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Persian/Persian$ +^frontier/frontier$ +^./.$ +^Within/Within$ +^the/the$ +^framework/framework$ +^of/of$ +^administrative/administrative$ +^divisions/division$ +^,/,$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^serves/serve$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^administrative/administrative$ +^centre/centre$ +^of/of$ +^Derbentsky/Derbentsky$ +^District/District$ +^,/,$ +^even though/even though$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^not/not$ +^a/a$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^it/prpers$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^an/a$ +^administrative/administrative$ +^division/division$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^incorporated/incorporate$ +^separately/separately$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^City/City$ +^of/of$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +— +^an/a$ +^administrative/administrative$ +^unit/unit$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^status/status$ +^equal/equal$ +^to/to$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^districts/district$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^a/a$ +^municipal/municipal$ +^division/division$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^City/City$ +^of/of$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^is/be$ +^incorporated/incorporate$ +^as/as$ +^Derbent/Derbent$ +^Urban/Urban$ +^Okrug/*Okrug$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^city/city$ +^is/be$ +^home/home$ +^to/to$ +^machine/machine$ +^building/build$ +^,/,$ +^food/food$ +^,/,$ +^textile/textile$ +^,/,$ +^fishing/fishing$ +^and/and$ +^fishery/*fishery$ +^supplies/supply$ +^,/,$ +^construction/construction$ +^materials/material$ +^and/and$ +^wood/wood$ +^industries/industry$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^production/production$ +^centre/centre$ +^of/of$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^brandy/*brandy$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^education/education$ +^infrastructure/infrastructure$ +^is/be$ +^fairly/fairly$ +^extensive/extensive$ +^;/;$ +^there/there$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^university/university$ +^as well as/as well as$ +^several/several$ +^technical schools/technical school$ +^./.$ +^About/About$ +^two/two$ +^kilometres/kilometre$ +^(/($ +^1.2/1.2$ +^miles/mile$ +^)/)$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^holiday/holiday$ +^complex/complex$ +^of/of$ +^Chayka/*Chayka$ +^(/($ +^Seagull/Seagull$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^protagonist/protagonist$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^classic/classic$ +^German/German$ +^legend/legend$ +^;/;$ +^a/a$ +^highly/highly$ +^successful/successful$ +^scholar/scholar$ +^but/but$ +^one/one$ +^dissatisfied/dissatisfied$ +^with/with$ +^his/prpers$ +^life/life$ +^who/who$ +^makes/make$ +^a/a$ +^pact/pact$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Devil/Devil$ +^,/,$ +^exchanging/exchange$ +^his/prpers$ +^soul/soul$ +^for/for$ +^unlimited/*unlimited$ +^knowledge/knowledge$ +^and/and$ +^worldly/*worldly$ +^pleasures/pleasure$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^legend/legend$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^the/the$ +^basis/basis$ +^for/for$ +^many/many$ +^literary/literary$ +^,/,$ +^artistic/artistic$ +^,/,$ +^cinematic/cinematic$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^musical/musical$ +^works/work$ +^that/that$ +^have/have$ +^reinterpreted/*reinterpreted$ +^it/prpers$ +^through/through$ +^the/the$ +^ages/age$ +^./.$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^adjective/adjective$ +^Faustian/Faustian$ +^imply/imply$ +^a/a$ +^situation/situation$ +^in/in$ +^which/which$ +^an/a$ +^ambitious/ambitious$ +^person/person$ +^surrenders/surrender$ +^moral/moral$ +^integrity/integrity$ +^in order to/in order to$ +^achieve/achieve$ +^power/power$ +^and/and$ +^success/success$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^delimited/delimit$ +^term/term$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^of/of$ +^early/early$ +^books/book$ +— +^as well as/as well as$ +^the/the$ +^ballads/*ballads$ +^,/,$ +^dramas/drama$ +^,/,$ +^films/film$ +^and/and$ +^puppet/puppet$ +^-/-$ +^plays/play$ +^which/which$ +^grew/grow$ +^out of/out of$ +^them/prpers$ +— +^is/be$ +^irrevocably/*irrevocably$ +^damned/damned$ +^because/because$ +^he/prpers$ +^prefers/prefer$ +^human/human$ +^to/to$ +^divine/divine$ +^knowledge/knowledge$ +^;/;$ +" +^he/prpers$ +^laid/lay$ +^the/the$ +^Holy/Holy$ +^Scriptures/*Scriptures$ +^behind/behind$ +^the/the$ +^door/door$ +^and/and$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^bench/bench$ +^,/,$ +^refused/refuse$ +^to/to$ +^be called/be# called$ +^doctor/doctor$ +^of/of$ +^Theology/Theology$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^preferred/prefer$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^styled/*styled$ +^doctor/doctor$ +^of/of$ +^Medicine/Medicine$ +" +^./.$ +^Plays/Play$ +^and/and$ +^comic/comic$ +^puppet/puppet$ +^theatre/theatre$ +^loosely/*loosely$ +^based/base$ +^on/on$ +^this/this$ +^legend/legend$ +^were/be$ +^popular/popular$ +^throughout/throughout$ +^Germany/Germany$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^16th century/16th century$ +^,/,$ +^often/often$ +^reducing/reduce$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^and/and$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^to/to$ +^figures/figure$ +^of/of$ +^vulgar/vulgar$ +^fun/fun$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^story/story$ +^was/be$ +^popularised/popularise$ +^in/in$ +^England/England$ +^by/by$ +^Christopher/Christopher$ +^Marlowe/*Marlowe$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^gave/give$ +^it/prpers$ +^a/a$ +^classic/classic$ +^treatment/treatment$ +^in/in$ +^his/prpers$ +^play/play$ +^,/,$ +^The/The$ +^Tragical/*Tragical$ +^History/History$ +^of/of$ +^Doctor/Doctor$ +^Faustus/Faustus$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Goethe/Goethe$ +^'s/'s$ +^reworking/*reworking$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^story/story$ +^two hundred/two hundred$ +^years/year$ +^later/later$ +^,/,$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^becomes/become$ +^a/a$ +^dissatisfied/dissatisfied$ +^intellectual/intellectual$ +^that/that$ +^yearns/yearn$ +^for/for$ +" +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^earthly/earthly$ +^meat/meat$ +^and/and$ +^drink/drink$ +" +^in/in$ +^his/prpers$ +^life/life$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^story/story$ +^may/may$ +^be/be$ +^summarised/*summarised$ +^as follows/as follows$ +^:/:$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^is/be$ +^bored/bore$ +^and/and$ +^disappointed/disappoint$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^decides/decide$ +^to/to$ +^call/call$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Devil/Devil$ +^for/for$ +^further/far$ +^knowledge/knowledge$ +^and/and$ +^magic/magic$ +^powers/power$ +^with/with$ +^which/which$ +^to/to$ +^indulge/*indulge$ +^all/all$ +^the/the$ +^pleasure/pleasure$ +^and/and$ +^knowledge/knowledge$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^world/world$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^response/response$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Devil/Devil$ +^'s/'s$ +^representative/representative$ +^,/,$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^,/,$ +^appears/appear$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^makes/make$ +^a/a$ +^bargain/bargain$ +^with/with$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^:/:$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^will/will$ +^serve/serve$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^with/with$ +^his/prpers$ +^magic/magic$ +^powers/power$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^set/set$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^years/year$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^at the end/at the end$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^term/term$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Devil/Devil$ +^will/will$ +^claim/claim$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^'s/'s$ +^soul/soul$ +^and/and$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^will/will$ +^be/be$ +^eternally/*eternally$ +^damned/damned$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^term/term$ +^usually/usually$ +^stipulated/stipulate$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^tales/tale$ +^is/be$ +^24/24$ +^years/year$ +— +^one/one$ +^year/year$ +^for/for$ +^each/each$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^hours/hour$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^day/day$ +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^term/term$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^bargain/bargain$ +^,/,$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^makes use/make# use$ +^of/of$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^in/in$ +^various/various$ +^ways/way$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^many/many$ +^versions/version$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^story/story$ +^,/,$ +^particularly/particularly$ +^Goethe/Goethe$ +^'s/'s$ +^drama/drama$ +^,/,$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^helps/help$ +^him/prpers$ +^to/to$ +^seduce/seduce$ +^a/a$ +^beautiful/beautiful$ +^and/and$ +^innocent/innocent$ +^girl/girl$ +^,/,$ +^usually/usually$ +^named/name$ +^Gretchen/Gretchen$ +^,/,$ +^whose/whose$ +^life/life$ +^is/be$ +^ultimately/ultimately$ +^destroyed/destroy$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^Gretchen/Gretchen$ +^'s/'s$ +^innocence/innocence$ +^saves/save$ +^her/prpers$ +^in the end/in the end$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^she/prpers$ +^enters/enter$ +^Heaven/Heaven$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Goethe/Goethe$ +^'s/'s$ +^rendition/*rendition$ +^,/,$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^is/be$ +^saved/save$ +^by/by$ +^God/God$ +^'s/'s$ +^grace/grace$ +^via/via$ +^his/prpers$ +^constant/constant$ +^striving/*striving$ +— +^in/in$ +^combination/combination$ +^with/with$ +^Gretchen/Gretchen$ +^'s/'s$ +^pleadings/*pleadings$ +^with/with$ +^God/God$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^form/form$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Eternal/Eternal$ +^Feminine/Feminine$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^tales/tale$ +^,/,$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^is/be$ +^irrevocably/*irrevocably$ +^corrupted/corrupt$ +^and/and$ +^believes/believe$ +^his/prpers$ +^sins/sin$ +^cannot/can+not$ +^be/be$ +^forgiven/forgive$ +^;/;$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^term/term$ +^ends/end$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Devil/Devil$ +^carries/carry$ +^him/prpers$ +^off/off$ +^to/to$ +^Hell/Hell$ +^./.$ +^An/A$ +^important/important$ +^version/version$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^legend/legend$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^play/play$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^,/,$ +^published/publish$ +^in/in$ +^1808/1808$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^German/German$ +^author/author$ +^Johann/Johann$ +^Wolfgang/Wolfgang$ +^von/*von$ +^Goethe/Goethe$ +^./.$ +^Goethe/Goethe$ +^'s/'s$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^complicates/complicate$ +^the/the$ +^simple/simple$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^moral/moral$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^original/original$ +^legend/legend$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^hybrid/hybrid$ +^between/between$ +^a/a$ +^play/play$ +^and/and$ +^an/a$ +^extended/extend$ +^poem/poem$ +^,/,$ +^Goethe/Goethe$ +^'s/'s$ +^two/two$ +^-/-$ +^part/part$ +" +^closet/closet$ +^drama/drama$ +" +^is/be$ +^epic/epic$ +^in/in$ +^scope/scope$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^gathers/gather$ +^together/together$ +^references/reference$ +^from/from$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^,/,$ +^medieval/medieval$ +^,/,$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^,/,$ +^eastern/eastern$ +^and/and$ +^Hellenic/Hellenic$ +^poetry/poetry$ +^,/,$ +^philosophy/philosophy$ +^and/and$ +^literature/literature$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^composition/composition$ +^and/and$ +^refinement/refinement$ +^of/of$ +^Goethe/Goethe$ +^'s/'s$ +^own/own$ +^version/version$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^legend/legend$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^him/prpers$ +^for/for$ +^over/over$ +^sixty/sixty$ +^years/year$ +^(/($ +^though/though$ +^not/not$ +^continuously/continuously$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^final/final$ +^version/version$ +^,/,$ +^published/publish$ +^after/after$ +^his/prpers$ +^death/death$ +^,/,$ +^is/be$ +^recognised/recognise$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^great/great$ +^work/work$ +^of/of$ +^German/German$ +^literature/literature$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^story/story$ +^concerns/concern$ +^the/the$ +^fate/fate$ +^of/of$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^in/in$ +^his/prpers$ +^quest/quest$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^true/true$ +^essence/essence$ +^of/of$ +^life/life$ +^(/($ +" +^was/*was$ +^die/*die$ +^Welt/*Welt$ +^im/*im$ +^Innersten/*Innersten$ +^zusammenhält/*zusammenhält$ +" +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Frustrated/Frustrate$ +^with/with$ +^learning/learning$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^limits/limit$ +^to/to$ +^his/prpers$ +^knowledge/knowledge$ +^,/,$ +^power/power$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^enjoyment/enjoyment$ +^of/of$ +^life/life$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^attracts/attract$ +^the/the$ +^attention/attention$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Devil/Devil$ +^(/($ +^represented/represent$ +^by/by$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^agrees to/agree# to$ +^serve/serve$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^moment/moment$ +^he/prpers$ +^attains/attain$ +^the/the$ +^zenith/zenith$ +^of/of$ +^human/human$ +^happiness/happiness$ +^,/,$ +^such that/such that$ +^he/prpers$ +^cries/cry$ +^out/out$ +^to/to$ +^that/that$ +^moment/moment$ +^to/to$ +" +^stay/stay$ +^,/,$ +^thou/thou$ +^art/be$ +^so/so$ +^beautiful/beautiful$ +^!/!$ +" +^(/($ +^Faust/Faust$ +^,/,$ +^I/I$ +^,/,$ +^1700/1700$ +^)/)$ +— +^at/at$ +^which/which$ +^point/point$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^may/may$ +^take/take$ +^his/prpers$ +^soul/soul$ +^./.$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^is/be$ +^pleased/please$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^deal/deal$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^he/prpers$ +^believes/believe$ +^this/this$ +^happy/happy$ +^zenith/zenith$ +^will/will$ +^never/never$ +^come/come$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^first/first$ +^part/part$ +^,/,$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^leads/lead$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^through/through$ +^experiences/experience$ +^that/that$ +^culminate/culminate$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^lustful/*lustful$ +^relationship/relationship$ +^with/with$ +^Gretchen/Gretchen$ +^,/,$ +^an/a$ +^innocent/innocent$ +^young/young$ +^woman/woman$ +^./.$ +^Gretchen/Gretchen$ +^and/and$ +^her/prpers$ +^family/family$ +^are/be$ +^destroyed/destroy$ +^by/by$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^'/'s$ +^deceptions/deception$ +^and/and$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^'s/'s$ +^desires/desire$ +^./.$ +^Part/Part$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^story/story$ +^ends in tragedy/end# in tragedy$ +^for/for$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^Gretchen/Gretchen$ +^is/be$ +^saved/save$ +^but/but$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^is left/be# left$ +^to/to$ +^grieve/grieve$ +^in/in$ +^shame/shame$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^second/second$ +^part/part$ +^begins/begin$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^spirits/spirit$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^earth/earth$ +^forgiving/forgive$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^(/($ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^rest/rest$ +^of/of$ +^mankind/mankind$ +^)/)$ +^and/and$ +^progresses/progress$ +^into/into$ +^allegorical/allegorical$ +^poetry/poetry$ +^./.$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^and/and$ +^his/prpers$ +^Devil/Devil$ +^pass/pass$ +^through/through$ +^and/and$ +^manipulate/manipulate$ +^the/the$ +^world/world$ +^of/of$ +^politics/politics$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^world/world$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^classical/classical$ +^gods/god$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^meet/meet$ +^with/with$ +^Helen/Helen$ +^of/of$ +^Troy/Troy$ +^(/($ +^the/the$ +^personification/personification$ +^of/of$ +^beauty/beauty$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Finally/Finally$ +^,/,$ +^having/have$ +^succeeded/succeed$ +^in/in$ +^taming/tame$ +^the/the$ +^very/very$ +^forces/force$ +^of/of$ +^war/war$ +^and/and$ +^nature/nature$ +^,/,$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^experiences/experience$ +^a/a$ +^singular/singular$ +^moment/moment$ +^of/of$ +^happiness/happiness$ +^./.$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^tries/try$ +^to/to$ +^seize/seize$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^'s/'s$ +^soul/soul$ +^when/when$ +^he/prpers$ +^dies/die$ +^after/after$ +^this/this$ +^moment/moment$ +^of/of$ +^happiness/happiness$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^is/be$ +^frustrated/frustrate$ +^and/and$ +^enraged/*enraged$ +^when/when$ +^angels/angel$ +^intervene/intervene$ +^due to/due to$ +^God/God$ +^'s/'s$ +^grace/grace$ +^./.$ +^Though/Though$ +^this/this$ +^grace/grace$ +^is/be$ +^truly/truly$ +^'/'$ +^gratuitous/*gratuitous$ +^'/'$ +^and/and$ +^does/do$ +^not/not$ +^condone/condone$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^'s/'s$ +^frequent/frequent$ +^errors/error$ +^perpetrated/*perpetrated$ +^with/with$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^angels/angel$ +^state/state$ +^that/that$ +^this/this$ +^grace/grace$ +^can/can$ +^only/only$ +^occur/occur$ +^because of/because of$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^'s/'s$ +^unending/*unending$ +^striving/*striving$ +^and/and$ +^due to/due to$ +^the/the$ +^intercession/*intercession$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^forgiving/forgive$ +^Gretchen/Gretchen$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^final/final$ +^scene/scene$ +^has/have$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^'s/'s$ +^soul/soul$ +^carried/carry$ +^to/to$ +^heaven/heaven$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^presence/presence$ +^of/of$ +^God/God$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +" +^Holy/Holy$ +^Virgin/Virgin$ +^,/,$ +^Mother/Mother$ +^,/,$ +^Queen/Queen$ +^,/,$ +^Goddess/Goddess$ +^.../...$ +^The/The$ +^Eternal/Eternal$ +^Feminine/Feminine$ +" +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Goddess/Goddess$ +^is/be$ +^thus/thus$ +^victorious/victorious$ +^over/over$ +^Mephistopheles/Mephistopheles$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^had/have$ +^insisted/insist$ +^at/at$ +^Faust/Faust$ +^'s/'s$ +^death/death$ +^that/that$ +^he/prpers$ +^would/will$ +^be/be$ +^consigned/consign$ +^to/to$ +" +^The/The$ +^Eternal/Eternal$ +^Empty/Empty$ +" +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^period/period$ +^,/,$ +^many/many$ +^Armenians/Armenian$ +^and/and$ +^Azeris/Azeris$ +^lived/live$ +^together/together$ +^peacefully/peacefully$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^when/when$ +^Mikhail/Mikhail$ +^Gorbachev/Gorbachev$ +^introduced/introduce$ +^the/the$ +^policies/policy$ +^of/of$ +^Glasnost/Glasnost$ +^and/and$ +^Perestroika/Perestroika$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^majority/majority$ +^Armenians/Armenian$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^autonomous/autonomous$ +^area/area$ +^of/of$ +^Nagorno/*Nagorno$ +^Karabakh/Karabakh$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^SSR/SSR$ +^began/begin$ +^a/a$ +^movement/movement$ +^to/to$ +^unify/unify$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Armenian/Armenian$ +^SSR/SSR$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1988/1988$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Armenians/Armenian$ +^of/of$ +^Karabakh/Karabakh$ +^voted/vote$ +^to/to$ +^secede/*secede$ +^and/and$ +^join/join$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^,/,$ +^along with/along with$ +^Armenian/Armenian$ +^massacres/massacre$ +^and/and$ +^pogroms/pogrom$ +^in/in$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^resulted/result$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^conflict/conflict$ +^that/that$ +^became/become$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^Nagorno/*Nagorno$ +^Karabakh/Karabakh$ +^War/War$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^violence/violence$ +^resulted/result$ +^in/in$ +^de/*de$ +^facto/*facto$ +^Armenian/Armenian$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^Nagorno/*Nagorno$ +^Karabakh/Karabakh$ +^and/and$ +^some/some$ +^surrounding/surrounding$ +^areas/area$ +^which/which$ +^was/be$ +^effectively/effectively$ +^halted/halt$ +^when/when$ +^both/both$ +^sides/side$ +^agrees to/agree# to$ +^observe/observe$ +^a/a$ +^cease-fire/cease-fire$ +^which/which$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^in effect/in effect$ +^since/since$ +^May/May$ +^1994/1994$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^in/in$ +^late/late$ +^1995/1995$ +^both/both$ +^also/also$ +^agreed to/agree# to$ +^OSCE/OSCE$ +^field/field$ +^gis/*gis$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Minsk/Minsk$ +^Group/Group$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^OSCE/OSCE$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Minsk/Minsk$ +^Group/Group$ +^is/be$ +^currently/currently$ +^co/*co$ +^-/-$ +^chaired/chair$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^U.S./U.S.$ +^,/,$ +^France/France$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^and/and$ +^comprises/comprise$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^,/,$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^,/,$ +^Turkey/Turkey$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^several/several$ +^Western/Western$ +^European/European$ +^nations/nation$ +^./.$ +^Despite/Despite$ +^this/this$ +^cease-fire/cease-fire$ +^,/,$ +^upwards/upwards$ +^of/of$ +^40/40$ +^clashes/clash$ +^are/be$ +^reported/report$ +^along/along$ +^the/the$ +^Nagorno/*Nagorno$ +^Karabakh/Karabakh$ +^conflict/conflict$ +^lines/line$ +^of/of$ +^control/control$ +^each/each$ +^year/year$ +^./.$ +^Since/Since$ +^1997/1997$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Minsk/Minsk$ +^Group/Group$ +^Co/*Co$ +^-/-$ +^Chairs/Chair$ +^have/have$ +^presented/present$ +^three/three$ +^proposals/proposal$ +^to/to$ +^serve/serve$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^framework/framework$ +^for/for$ +^resolving/resolve$ +^the/the$ +^conflict/conflict$ +^./.$ +^One/One$ +^side/side$ +^or/or$ +^the other/the other$ +^rejected/reject$ +^each/each$ +^of/of$ +^those/that$ +^proposals/proposal$ +^./.$ +^Beginning/Begin$ +^in/in$ +^1999/1999$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Presidents/President$ +^of/of$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^and/and$ +^Armenia/Armenia$ +^initiated/initiate$ +^a/a$ +^direct/direct$ +^dialogue/dialogue$ +^through/through$ +^a/a$ +^series/series$ +^of/of$ +^face/face$ +^-/-$ +^to/to$ +^-/-$ +^face/face$ +^meetings/meeting$ +^,/,$ +^often/often$ +^facilitated/facilitate$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Minsk/Minsk$ +^Group/Group$ +^Co/*Co$ +^-/-$ +^Chairs/Chair$ +^./.$ +^Most/Most$ +^recently/recently$ +^the/the$ +^OSCE/OSCE$ +^sponsored/sponsor$ +^a/a$ +^round/round$ +^of/of$ +^negotiations/negotiation$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Presidents/President$ +^in/in$ +^Key/Key$ +^West/West$ +^,/,$ +^Florida/Florida$ +^./.$ +^U.S./U.S.$ +^Secretary of State/Secretary# of State$ +^Colin/Colin$ +^Powell/Powell$ +^launched/launch$ +^the/the$ +^talks/talk$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^3rd/3$ +^April/April$ +^,/,$ +^2001/2001$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^negotiations/negotiation$ +^continued/continue$ +^with/with$ +^mediation/mediation$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^U.S./U.S.$ +^,/,$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^France/France$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^6th/6$ +^April/April$ +^,/,$ +^2001/2001$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Co/*Co$ +^-/-$ +^Chairs/Chair$ +^are/be$ +^continuing/continue$ +^to/to$ +^work/work$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^two/two$ +^Presidents/President$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^hope/hope$ +^of/of$ +^finding/find$ +^a/a$ +^lasting/lasting$ +^peace/peace$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Kyrgyz/*Kyrgyz$ +^Autonomous/Autonomous$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^Socialist/Socialist$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^was/be$ +^set up/set# up$ +^in/in$ +^1920/1920$ +^and/and$ +^was/be$ +^renamed/rename$ +^the/the$ +^Kazakh/*Kazakh$ +^Autonomous/Autonomous$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^Socialist/Socialist$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^in/in$ +^1925/1925$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^Kazakhs/*Kazakhs$ +^were/be$ +^differentiated/differentiate$ +^officially/officially$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^Kyrgyz/*Kyrgyz$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Russian/Russian$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^recognised/recognise$ +^the/the$ +^ethnic/ethnic$ +^difference/difference$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^two/two$ +^groups/group$ +^;/;$ +^it/prpers$ +^called/call$ +^them/prpers$ +^both/both$ +^Kyrgyz/*Kyrgyz$ +^to/to$ +^avoid/avoid$ +^confusion/confusion$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^terms/term$ +^Kazakh/*Kazakh$ +^and/and$ +^Cossack/*Cossack$ +^(/($ +^both/both$ +^names/name$ +^originating/originate$ +^from/from$ +^Turkic/*Turkic$ +" +^free/free$ +^man/man$ +" +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^keeping/keep$ +^with/with$ +^practices/practice$ +^in/in$ +^other/other$ +^republics/republic$ +^at that time/at that time$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^parliament/parliament$ +^had/have$ +^named/name$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^its/prpers$ +^chairman/chairman$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^then/then$ +^,/,$ +^soon/soon$ +^afterward/afterward$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^had/have$ +^converted/convert$ +^the/the$ +^chairmanship/*chairmanship$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^presidency/presidency$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^republic/republic$ +^./.$ +^In contrast/In contrast$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^presidents/president$ +^of/of$ +^the other/the+other$ +^republics/republic$ +^,/,$ +^especially/especially$ +^those/that$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^independence/independence$ +^-/-$ +^minded/mind$ +^Baltic/*Baltic$ +^states/state$ +^,/,$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^remained/remain$ +^strongly/strongly$ +^committed/commit$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^perpetuation/*perpetuation$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^throughout/throughout$ +^the/the$ +^spring/spring$ +^and/and$ +^summer/summer$ +^of/of$ +^1991/1991$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^took/take$ +^this/this$ +^position/position$ +^largely/largely$ +^because/because$ +^he/prpers$ +^considered/consider$ +^the/the$ +^republics/republic$ +^too/too$ +^interdependent/interdependent$ +^economically/economically$ +^to/to$ +^survive/survive$ +^separation/separation$ +^./.$ +^At the same time/At the same time$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^fought/fight$ +^hard/hard$ +^to/to$ +^secure/secure$ +^republic/republic$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^'s/'s$ +^enormous/enormous$ +^mineral/mineral$ +^wealth/wealth$ +^and/and$ +^industrial/industrial$ +^potential/potential$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^objective/objective$ +^became/become$ +^particularly/particularly$ +^important/important$ +^after/after$ +^1990/1990$ +^,/,$ +^when/when$ +^it/prpers$ +^was/be$ +^learned/learn$ +^that/that$ +^Gorbachev/*Gorbachev$ +^had/have$ +^negotiated/negotiate$ +^an/a$ +^agreement/agreement$ +^with/with$ +^Chevron/Chevron$ +^,/,$ +^an/a$ +^American/American$ +^oil company/oil company$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^develop/develop$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^'s/'s$ +^Tengiz/*Tengiz$ +^oil/oil$ +^fields/field$ +^./.$ +^Gorbachev/*Gorbachev$ +^did/do$ +^not/not$ +^consult/consult$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^until/until$ +^talks/talk$ +^were/be$ +^nearly/nearly$ +^complete/complete$ +^./.$ +^At/At$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^'s/'s$ +^insistence/insistence$ +^,/,$ +^Moscow/Moscow$ +^surrendered/surrender$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^republic/republic$ +^'s/'s$ +^mineral/mineral$ +^resources/resource$ +^in/in$ +^June/June$ +^1991/1991$ +^./.$ +^Gorbachev/*Gorbachev$ +^'s/'s$ +^authority/authority$ +^crumbled/crumble$ +^rapidly/rapidly$ +^throughout/throughout$ +^1991/1991$ +^./.$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^continued/continue$ +^to/to$ +^support/support$ +^him/prpers$ +^,/,$ +^persistently/*persistently$ +^urging/urge$ +^other/other$ +^republic/republic$ +^leaders/leader$ +^to/to$ +^sign/sign$ +^the/the$ +^revised/revise$ +^Union/Union$ +^Treaty/Treaty$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^Gorbachev/*Gorbachev$ +^had/have$ +^put/put$ +^forward/forward$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^last/last$ +^attempt/attempt$ +^to/to$ +^hold/hold$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^together/together$ +^./.$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^has/have$ +^followed/follow$ +^the same/the same$ +^general/general$ +^political/political$ +^pattern/pattern$ +^as/as$ +^the other/the+other$ +^four/four$ +^Central/Central$ +^Asian/Asian$ +^states/state$ +^./.$ +^After/After$ +^declaring/declare$ +^independence/independence$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^political/political$ +^structure/structure$ +^completely/completely$ +^dominated/dominate$ +^by/by$ +^Moscow/Moscow$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Communist Party/Communist party$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^(/($ +^CPSU/CPSU$ +^)/)$ +^until/until$ +^1991/1991$ +^,/,$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^retained/retain$ +^the/the$ +^basic/basic$ +^governmental/governmental$ +^structure/structure$ +^and/and$ +^,/,$ +^in fact/in fact$ +^,/,$ +^most of/most of$ +^the same/the same$ +^leadership/leadership$ +^that/that$ +^had/have$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^the/the$ +^top/top$ +^levels/level$ +^of/of$ +^power/power$ +^in/in$ +^1990/1990$ +^./.$ +^Nursultan/*Nursultan$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^,/,$ +^first/first$ +^secretary/secretary$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Communist Party/Communist party$ +^of/of$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^(/($ +^CPK/CPK$ +^)/)$ +^beginning/begin$ +^in/in$ +^1989/1989$ +^,/,$ +^was/be$ +^elected/elect$ +^president/president$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^republic/republic$ +^in/in$ +^1991/1991$ +^and/and$ +^remained/remain$ +^in/in$ +^undisputed/*undisputed$ +^power/power$ +^five/five$ +^years/year$ +^later/later$ +^./.$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^took/take$ +^several/several$ +^effective/effective$ +^steps/step$ +^to/to$ +^ensure/ensure$ +^his/prpers$ +^position/position$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^of/of$ +^1993/1993$ +^made/make$ +^the/the$ +^prime minister/prime minister$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Council/Council$ +^of/of$ +^Ministers/Minister$ +^responsible/responsible$ +^solely/solely$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^president/president$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^in/in$ +^1995/1995$ +^a/a$ +^new/new$ +^constitution/constitution$ +^reinforced/reinforce$ +^that/that$ +^relationship/relationship$ +^./.$ +^Furthermore/Furthermore$ +^,/,$ +^opposition/opposition$ +^parties/party$ +^were/be$ +^severely/severely$ +^limited/limit$ +^by/by$ +^legal/legal$ +^restrictions/restriction$ +^on/on$ +^their/prpers$ +^activities/activity$ +^./.$ +^Within/Within$ +^that/that$ +^rigid/rigid$ +^framework/framework$ +^,/,$ +^Nazarbayev/*Nazarbayev$ +^gained/gain$ +^substantial/substantial$ +^popularity/popularity$ +^by/by$ +^limiting/limit$ +^the/the$ +^economic/economic$ +^shock/shock$ +^of/of$ +^separation/separation$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^security/security$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^and/and$ +^by/by$ +^maintaining/maintain$ +^ethnic/ethnic$ +^harmony/harmony$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^highly/highly$ +^diverse/diverse$ +^country/country$ +^with/with$ +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^100/100$ +^different/different$ +^nationalities/nationality$ +^./.$ +^There/There$ +^is/be$ +^considerable/considerable$ +^topographical/topographical$ +^variation/variation$ +^within/within$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^highest/high$ +^point/point$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^top/top$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^mountain/mountain$ +^Khan/*Khan$ +^Tengri/*Tengri$ +^,/,$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Kyrgyz/*Kyrgyz$ +^border/border$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Tian/*Tian$ +^Shan/*Shan$ +^range/range$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^an/a$ +^elevation/elevation$ +^of/of$ +^7,010/7,010$ +^metres/metre$ +^;/;$ +^the/the$ +^lowest/low$ +^point/point$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^bottom/bottom$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Karagiye/*Karagiye$ +^depression/depression$ +^at/at$ +^-/-$ +^132/132$ +^m/*m$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Mangystau/*Mangystau$ +^province/province$ +^east/east$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^./.$ +^Most of/Most of$ +^the/the$ +^country/country$ +^lies/lie$ +^at/at$ +^between/between$ +^200/200$ +^and/and$ +^300/300$ +^metres/metre$ +^above sea level/above sea level$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^'s/'s$ +^Caspian/*Caspian$ +^shore/shore$ +^includes/include$ +^some/some$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^lowest/low$ +^elevations/elevation$ +^on/on$ +^Earth/Earth$ +^./.$ +^Many/Many$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^peaks/peak$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Altay/*Altay$ +^and/and$ +^Tian/*Tian$ +^Shan/*Shan$ +^ranges/range$ +^are/be$ +^snow/snow$ +^covered/cover$ +^year/year$ +^-/-$ +^round/round$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^their/prpers$ +^runoff/runoff$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^source/source$ +^for/for$ +^most of/most of$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^'s/'s$ +^rivers/river$ +^and/and$ +^streams/stream$ +^./.$ +^Except for/Except for$ +^the/the$ +^Tobol/*Tobol$ +^,/,$ +^Ishim/*Ishim$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Irtysh/*Irtysh$ +^rivers/river$ +^(/($ +^the/the$ +^Kazakh/*Kazakh$ +^names/name$ +^for/for$ +^which/which$ +^are/be$ +^,/,$ +^respectively/respectively$ +^,/,$ +^Tobyl/*Tobyl$ +^,/,$ +^Esil/*Esil$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Ertis/*Ertis$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^portions/portion$ +^of/of$ +^which/which$ +^flow/flow$ +^through/through$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^,/,$ +^all/all$ +^of/of$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^'s/'s$ +^rivers/river$ +^and/and$ +^streams/stream$ +^are/be$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^landlocked/*landlocked$ +^systems/system$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^either/either$ +^flow/flow$ +^into/into$ +^isolated/isolated$ +^bodies/body$ +^of/of$ +^water/water$ +^such as/such as$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^or/or$ +^simply/simply$ +^disappear/disappear$ +^into/into$ +^the/the$ +^steppes/steppe$ +^and/and$ +^deserts/desert$ +^of/of$ +^central/central$ +^and/and$ +^southern/southern$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^./.$ +^Many/Many$ +^rivers/river$ +^,/,$ +^streams/stream$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^lakes/lake$ +^are/be$ +^seasonal/seasonal$ +^,/,$ +^evaporating/evaporate$ +^in/in$ +^summer/summer$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^three/three$ +^largest/large$ +^bodies/body$ +^of/of$ +^water/water$ +^are/be$ +^Lake/Lake$ +^Balkhash/*Balkhash$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^partially/partially$ +^fresh/fresh$ +^,/,$ +^partially/partially$ +^saline/saline$ +^lake/lake$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^east/east$ +^,/,$ +^near/near$ +^Almaty/*Almaty$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian/*Caspian$ +^and/and$ +^Aral/*Aral$ +^seas/sea$ +^,/,$ +^both/both$ +^of/of$ +^which/which$ +^lie/lie$ +^partially/partially$ +^within/within$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^./.$ +^After/After$ +^the/the$ +^fall/fall$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^German/German$ +^population/population$ +^of/of$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^proceeded/proceed$ +^to/to$ +^emigrate/emigrate$ +^en/*en$ +^masse/*masse$ +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^1990/1990$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^Germany/Germany$ +^is/be$ +^willing/willing$ +^to/to$ +^repatriate/repatriate$ +^them/prpers$ +^./.$ +^Also/Also$ +^much/much$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^smaller/small$ +^Greek/Greek$ +^minority/minority$ +^took/take$ +^the/the$ +^chance/chance$ +^to/to$ +^repatriate/repatriate$ +^to/to$ +^Greece/Greece$ +^,/,$ +^so/so$ +^did/do$ +^many/many$ +^Russians/Russian$ +^move/move$ +^to/to$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^groups/group$ +^have/have$ +^fewer/fewer$ +^good/good$ +^options/option$ +^for/for$ +^emigration/emigration$ +^but/but$ +^because of/because of$ +^the/the$ +^economic/economic$ +^situation/situation$ +^are/be$ +^also/also$ +^leaving/leave$ +^at/at$ +^rates/rate$ +^comparable/comparable$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^rest/rest$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^former/former$ +^Eastern/Eastern$ +^bloc/bloc$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^7th century CE/7th century CE$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^founded/found$ +^an/a$ +^independent/independent$ +^Khaganate/*Khaganate$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Northern/Northern$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^along/along$ +^the/the$ +^Caspian Sea/Caspian Sea$ +^./.$ +^Although/Although$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^were/be$ +^initially/initially$ +^Tengri/*Tengri$ +^shamanists/*shamanists$ +^,/,$ +^many/many$ +^converted/convert$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Abrahamic/*Abrahamic$ +^faiths/faith$ +^through/through$ +^interaction/interaction$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Byzantine/Byzantine$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^and/and$ +^successive/successive$ +^Islamic/Islamic$ +^caliphates/*caliphates$ +^;/;$ +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^8th/8$ +^or/or$ +^9th century/9th century$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Khaganate/*Khaganate$ +^adopted/adopt$ +^Judaism/Judaism$ +^as/as$ +^state/state$ +^religion/religion$ +^./.$ +^At/At$ +^their/prpers$ +^height/height$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^and/and$ +^their/prpers$ +^tributaries/tributary$ +^controlled/control$ +^much/much$ +^of/of$ +^what/what$ +^is/be$ +^today/today$ +^southern/southern$ +^Russia/Russia$ +^,/,$ +^western/western$ +^Kazakhstan/Kazakhstan$ +^,/,$ +^eastern/eastern$ +^Ukraine/Ukraine$ +^,/,$ +^Azerbaijan/Azerbaijan$ +^,/,$ +^large/large$ +^portions/portion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Northern/Northern$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^(/($ +^Circassia/*Circassia$ +^,/,$ +^Dagestan/*Dagestan$ +^,/,$ +^Chechnya/*Chechnya$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^parts/part$ +^of/of$ +^Georgia/Georgia$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Crimea/*Crimea$ +^./.$ +^Early/Early$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^history/history$ +^is/be$ +^intimately/intimately$ +^tied/tie$ +^with that/with that$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Göktürk/*Göktürk$ +^empire/empire$ +^,/,$ +^founded/found$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^Ashina/*Ashina$ +^clan/clan$ +^overthrew/overthrow$ +^the/the$ +^Juan/Juan$ +^Juan/Juan$ +^in/in$ +^552/552$ +^CE/*CE$ +^./.$ +^With/With$ +^the/the$ +^collapse/collapse$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Göktürk/*Göktürk$ +^empire/empire$ +^due to/due to$ +^internal/internal$ +^conflict/conflict$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^seventh/seventh$ +^century/century$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^western/western$ +^half/half$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Turk/*Turk$ +^empire/empire$ +^split/split$ +^into/into$ +^a/a$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^tribal/tribal$ +^confederations/confederation$ +^,/,$ +^among/among$ +^whom/whom$ +^were/be$ +^the/the$ +^Bulgars/*Bulgars$ +^,/,$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Dulo/*Dulo$ +^clan/clan$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^,/,$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Ashina/*Ashina$ +^clan/clan$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^traditional/traditional$ +^rulers/ruler$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Göktürk/*Göktürk$ +^empire/empire$ +^./.$ +^By/By$ +^670/670$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^had/have$ +^broken/break$ +^the/the$ +^Bulgar/*Bulgar$ +^confederation/confederation$ +^,/,$ +^causing/cause$ +^various/various$ +^tribal/tribal$ +^groups/group$ +^to/to$ +^migrate/migrate$ +^and/and$ +^leaving/leave$ +^two/two$ +^remnants/remnant$ +^of/of$ +^Bulgar/*Bulgar$ +^rule/rule$ +^-/-$ +^Volga/*Volga$ +^Bulgaria/Bulgaria$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Bulgarian/Bulgarian$ +^khanate/*khanate$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Danube/*Danube$ +^River/River$ +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^7th and 8th centuries/7th and 8th centuries$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^fought/fight$ +^a/a$ +^series/series$ +^of/of$ +^wars/war$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^Umayyad/*Umayyad$ +^Caliphate/*Caliphate$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^was/be$ +^attempting/attempt$ +^simultaneously/simultaneously$ +^to/to$ +^expand/expand$ +^its/prpers$ +^influence/influence$ +^into/into$ +^Transoxiana/*Transoxiana$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Caucasus/*Caucasus$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^first/first$ +^war/war$ +^was/be$ +^fought/fight$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^650/650$ +^and/and$ +^ended/end$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^defeat/defeat$ +^of/of$ +^an/a$ +^Arab/Arab$ +^force/force$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^Abd/Abd$ +^ar/*ar$ +^-/-$ +^Rahman/*Rahman$ +^ibn/*ibn$ +^Rabiah/*Rabiah$ +^outside/outside$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^town/town$ +^of/of$ +^Balanjar/*Balanjar$ +^,/,$ +^after/after$ +^a/a$ +^battle/battle$ +^in/in$ +^which/which$ +^both/both$ +^sides/side$ +^used/use$ +^siege/siege$ +^engines/engine$ +^on/on$ +^the others/the other$ +^'/'s$ +^troops/troop$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^are/be$ +^also/also$ +^known/know$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^allied/ally$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Byzantine/Byzantine$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^during/during$ +^at least/at least$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^eighth/eighth$ +^century/century$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^704/704$ +^or/or$ +^705/705$ +^Justinian/*Justinian$ +^II/II$ +^,/,$ +^exiled/exile$ +^in/in$ +^Cherson/*Cherson$ +^,/,$ +^escaped/escape$ +^into/into$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^territory/territory$ +^and/and$ +^married/marry$ +^Theodora/*Theodora$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^sister/sister$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Khagan/*Khagan$ +^Busir/*Busir$ +^./.$ +^With the aid of/With the aid of$ +^his/prpers$ +^wife/wife$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^escaped/escape$ +^from/from$ +^Busir/*Busir$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^was/be$ +^intriguing/intriguing$ +^against/against$ +^him/prpers$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^usurper/usurper$ +^Tiberius/*Tiberius$ +^III/III$ +^,/,$ +^murdering/murder$ +^two/two$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^officials/official$ +^in the process/in the process$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^fled/flee$ +^to/to$ +^Bulgaria/Bulgaria$ +^,/,$ +^whose/whose$ +^Khan/*Khan$ +^Tervel/*Tervel$ +^helped/help$ +^him/prpers$ +^regain/regain$ +^the/the$ +^throne/throne$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^later/later$ +^provided/provide$ +^aid/aid$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^rebel/rebel$ +^general/general$ +^Bardanes/*Bardanes$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^seized/seize$ +^the/the$ +^throne/throne$ +^in/in$ +^711/711$ +^as/as$ +^Emperor/Emperor$ +^Philippicus/*Philippicus$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Byzantine/Byzantine$ +^emperor/emperor$ +^Leo/Leo$ +^III/III$ +^married/marry$ +^his/prpers$ +^son/son$ +^Constantine/*Constantine$ +^(/($ +^later/later$ +^Constantine/*Constantine$ +^V/V$ +^Kopronymous/*Kopronymous$ +^)/)$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^princess/princess$ +^Tzitzak/*Tzitzak$ +^(/($ +^daughter/daughter$ +^of/of$ 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+^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^established/establish$ +^state/state$ +^religion/religion$ +^by/by$ +^830/830$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^though/though$ +^St./*St.$ +^Cyril/*Cyril$ +^(/($ +^who/who$ +^visited/visit$ +^Khazaria/*Khazaria$ +^in/in$ +^861/861$ +^)/)$ +^did/do$ +^not/not$ +^identify/identify$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^as/as$ +^Jews/*Jews$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^khagan/*khagan$ +^of/of$ +^that/that$ +^period/period$ +^,/,$ +^Zachariah/Zachariah$ +^,/,$ +^had/have$ +^a/a$ +^biblical/biblical$ +^Hebrew/Hebrew$ +^name/name$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^medieval/medieval$ +^sources/source$ +^give/give$ +^the/the$ +^name/name$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^rabbi/rabbi$ +^who/who$ +^oversaw/*oversaw$ +^the/the$ +^conversion/conversion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^as/as$ +^Isaac/Isaac$ +^Sangari/*Sangari$ +^or/or$ +^Yitzhak/*Yitzhak$ +^ha/*ha$ +^-/-$ +^Sangari/*Sangari$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^first/first$ +^Jewish/Jewish$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^king/king$ +^was/be$ +^named/name$ +^Bulan/*Bulan$ +^which/which$ +^means/mean$ +" +^elk/elk$ +" +^,/,$ +^though/though$ +^some/some$ +^sources/source$ +^give/give$ +^him/prpers$ +^the/the$ +^Hebrew/Hebrew$ +^name/name$ +^Sabriel/*Sabriel$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^later/late$ +^king/king$ +^,/,$ +^Obadiah/*Obadiah$ +^,/,$ +^strengthened/strengthen$ +^Judaism/Judaism$ +^,/,$ +^inviting/invite$ +^rabbis/rabbi$ +^into/into$ +^the/the$ +^kingdom/kingdom$ +^and/and$ +^built/build$ +^synagogues/synagogue$ +^./.$ +^Jewish/Jewish$ +^figures/figure$ +^such as/such as$ +^Saadia/*Saadia$ +^Gaon/*Gaon$ +^made/make$ +^positive/positive$ +^references/reference$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^they/prpers$ +^are/be$ +^excoriated/*excoriated$ +^in/in$ +^contemporary/contemporary$ +^Karaite/*Karaite$ +^writings/writing$ +^as/as$ +" +^bastards/bastard$ +" +^;/;$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^therefore/therefore$ +^unlikely/unlikely$ +^that/that$ +^they/prpers$ +^adopted/adopt$ +^Karaism/*Karaism$ +^as/as$ +^some/some$ +^(/($ +^such as/such as$ +^Avraham/*Avraham$ +^Firkovich/*Firkovich$ +^)/)$ +^have/have$ +^proposed/propose$ +^./.$ +^Likewise/Likewise$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^rulers/ruler$ +^viewed/view$ +^themselves/themselves$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^protectors/protector$ +^of/of$ +^international/international$ +^Jewry/*Jewry$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^corresponded/correspond$ +^with/with$ +^foreign/foreign$ +^Jewish/Jewish$ +^leaders/leader$ +^(/($ +^the/the$ +^letters/letter$ +^exchanged/exchange$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^ruler/ruler$ +^Joseph/Joseph$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^rabbi/rabbi$ +^Hasdai/*Hasdai$ +^ibn/*ibn$ +^Shaprut/*Shaprut$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^preserved/preserve$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^They/Prpers$ +^were/be$ +^known/know$ +^to/to$ +^retaliate/*retaliate$ +^against/against$ +^Muslim/Muslim$ +^or/or$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^interests/interest$ +^in/in$ +^Khazaria/*Khazaria$ +^for/for$ +^persecution/persecution$ +^of/of$ +^Jews/*Jews$ +^abroad/abroad$ +^./.$ +^Ibn/*Ibn$ +^Fadlan/*Fadlan$ +^relates/relate$ +^that/that$ +^around/around$ +^920/920$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^ruler/ruler$ +^received/receive$ +^information/information$ +^that/that$ +^Muslims/Muslim$ +^had/have$ +^destroyed/destroy$ +^a/a$ +^synagogue/synagogue$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^land/land$ +^of/of$ +^Babung/*Babung$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^Iran/Iran$ +^;/;$ +^he/prpers$ +^gave/give$ +^orders/order$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^minaret/minaret$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^mosque/mosque$ +^in/in$ +^his/prpers$ +^capital/capital$ +^should/shall$ +^be/be$ +^broken/break$ +^off/off$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^muezzin/*muezzin$ +^executed/execute$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^further/far$ +^declared/declare$ +^that/that$ +^he/prpers$ +^would/will$ +^have/have$ +^destroyed/destroy$ +^the/the$ +^mosque/mosque$ +^entirely/entirely$ +^had/have$ +^he/prpers$ +^not/not$ +^been afraid/be# afraid$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^Muslims/Muslim$ +^would/will$ +^in turn/in turn$ +^destroy/destroy$ +^all/all$ +^the/the$ +^synagogues/synagogue$ +^in/in$ +^their/prpers$ +^lands/land$ +^./.$ +^Similarly/Similarly$ +^,/,$ +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^persecutions/persecution$ +^of/of$ +^Byzantine/Byzantine$ +^Jews/*Jews$ +^under/under$ +^Romanos/*Romanos$ +^I/I$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^government/government$ +^retaliated/*retaliated$ +^by/by$ +^attacking/attack$ +^Byzantine/Byzantine$ +^interests/interest$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Crimea/*Crimea$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^Greek/Greek$ +^Orthodox/Orthodox$ +^bishop/bishop$ +^was/be$ +^resident/resident$ +^at/at$ +^Atil/*Atil$ +^and/and$ +^was/be$ +^subject/subject$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^authority/authority$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Metropolitan/Metropolitan$ +^of/of$ +^Doros/*Doros$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +" +^apostle/apostle$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Slavs/*Slavs$ +" +^,/,$ +^Saint/Saint$ +^Cyril/*Cyril$ +^,/,$ +^is/be$ +^said/say$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^attempted/attempt$ +^the/the$ +^conversion/conversion$ +^of/of$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ 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+^ruler/ruler$ +^;/;$ +^this/this$ +^may/may$ +^,/,$ +^however/however$ +^,/,$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^an/a$ +^exaggeration/exaggeration$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^Khazar/*Khazar$ +^Correspondence/Correspondence$ +^,/,$ +^King/King$ +^Joseph/Joseph$ +^identifies/identify$ +^himself/himself$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^ruler/ruler$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Khazars/*Khazars$ +^and/and$ +^makes/make$ +^no/no$ +^reference/reference$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^colleague/colleague$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^has/have$ +^been/be$ +^disputed/dispute$ +^whether/whether$ +^Joseph/Joseph$ +^was/be$ +^a/a$ +^Khagan/*Khagan$ +^or/or$ +^a/a$ +^Bek/*Bek$ +^;/;$ +^his/prpers$ +^description/description$ +^of/of$ +^his/prpers$ +^military/military$ +^campaigns/campaign$ +^make/make$ +^the/the$ +^latter/latter$ +^probable/probable$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^according to/according to$ +^the/the$ +^Schechter/*Schechter$ +^Letter/Letter$ +^,/,$ +^king/king$ +^Joseph/Joseph$ +^is/be$ +^identified/identify$ +^as/as$ 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+^family/family$ +^(/($ +^OE/*OE$ +^cynn/*cynn$ +^)/)$ +^tracing/trace$ +^their/prpers$ +^ancestry/ancestry$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^tribe/tribe$ +^'s/'s$ +^divine/divine$ +^or/or$ +^semi/semi$ +^-/-$ +^divine/divine$ +^founder/founder$ +^./.$ +^Free/Free$ +^women/woman$ +^did/do$ +^not/not$ +^have/have$ +^a/a$ +^political/political$ +^station/station$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^own/own$ +^but/but$ +^inherited/inherit$ +^the/the$ +^rank/rank$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^father/father$ +^if/if$ +^unmarried/unmarried$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +^their/prpers$ +^husband/husband$ +^if/if$ +^married/marry$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^weregild/weregild$ +^or/or$ +^recompense/recompense$ +^due/due$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^killing/kill$ +^or/or$ +^injuring/injure$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^woman/woman$ +^is/be$ +^notably/notably$ +^set/set$ +^at/at$ +^twice/twice$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^man/man$ +^of/of$ +^the same/the same$ +^rank/rank$ +^in/in$ +^Alemannic/*Alemannic$ +^law/law$ +^./.$ +^All/All$ +^freemen/freemen$ +^had/have$ +^the/the$ +^right/right$ +^to/to$ +^participate/participate$ +^in general/in general$ +^assemblies/assembly$ +^or/or$ +^things/thing$ +^,/,$ +^where/where$ +^disputes/dispute$ +^between/between$ +^freemen/freemen$ +^were/be$ +^addressed/address$ +^according to/according to$ +^customary/customary$ +^law/law$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^king/king$ +^was/be$ +^bound/bind$ +^to/to$ +^uphold/uphold$ +^ancestral/ancestral$ +^law/law$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^was/be$ +^at the same time/at the same time$ +^the/the$ +^source/source$ +^for/for$ +^new/new$ +^laws/law$ +^for/for$ +^cases/case$ +^not/not$ +^addressed/address$ +^in/in$ +^previous/previous$ +^tradition/tradition$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^aspect/aspect$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^reason/reason$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^creation/creation$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^various/various$ +^Germanic/Germanic$ +^law/law$ +^codes/code$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^kings/king$ +^following/follow$ +^their/prpers$ +^conversion/conversion$ +^to/to$ +^Christianity/Christianity$ +^:/:$ +^besides/besides$ +^recording/record$ +^inherited/inherit$ +^tribal/tribal$ +^law/law$ +^,/,$ +^these/this$ +^codes/code$ +^have/have$ +^the/the$ +^purpose/purpose$ +^of/of$ +^settling/settle$ +^the/the$ +^position/position$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^church/church$ +^and/and$ +^Christian/Christian$ +^clergy/clergy$ +^within/within$ +^society/society$ +^,/,$ +^usually/usually$ +^setting/set$ +^the/the$ +^weregilds/weregilds$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^members/member$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^clerical/clerical$ +^hierarchy/hierarchy$ +^parallel/parallel$ +^to/to$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^existing/existing$ +^hierarchy/hierarchy$ +^of/of$ +^nobility/nobility$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^position/position$ +^of/of$ +^an/a$ +^archbishop/archbishop$ +^mirroring/mirroring$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^king/king$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^case/case$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^suspected/suspect$ +^crime/crime$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^accused/accuse$ +^could/can$ +^avoid/avoid$ +^punishment/punishment$ +^by/by$ +^presenting/present$ +^a/a$ +^fixed/fixed$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^free/free$ +^men/man$ +^(/($ +^their/prpers$ +^number/number$ +^depending/depend$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^severity/severity$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^crime/crime$ +^)/)$ +^prepared/prepare$ +^to/to$ +^swear/swear$ +^an/a$ +^oath/oath$ +^on/on$ +^his/prpers$ +^innocence/innocence$ +^./.$ +^Failing/Fail$ +^this/this$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^could/can$ +^prove/prove$ +^his/prpers$ +^innocence/innocence$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^trial/trial$ +^by/by$ +^combat/combat$ +^./.$ +^Corporal/Corporal$ +^or/or$ +^capital/capital$ +^punishment/punishment$ +^for free/for free$ +^men/man$ +^does/do$ +^not/not$ +^figure/figure$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Germanic/Germanic$ +^law/law$ +^codes/code$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^banishment/banishment$ +^appears/appear$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^the/the$ +^most/most$ +^severe/severe$ +^penalty/penalty$ +^issued/issue$ +^officially/officially$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^reflects/reflect$ +^that/that$ +^Germanic/Germanic$ +^tribal/tribal$ +^law/law$ +^did/do$ +^not/not$ +^have/have$ +^the/the$ +^scope/scope$ +^of/of$ +^exacting/exacting$ +^revenge/revenge$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^was left/be# left$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^judgement/judgement$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^family/family$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^victim/victim$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^to/to$ +^settle/settle$ +^damages/damage$ +^as/as$ +^fairly/fairly$ +^as/as$ +^possible/possible$ +^once/once$ +^an/a$ +^involved/involve$ +^party/party$ +^decided/decide$ +^to/to$ +^bring/bring$ +^a/a$ +^dispute/dispute$ +^before/before$ +^the/the$ +^assembly/assembly$ +^./.$ +^Traditional/Traditional$ +^Germanic/Germanic$ +^society/society$ +^is/be$ +^gradually/gradually$ +^replaced/replace$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^system/system$ +^of/of$ +^estates/estate$ +^and/and$ +^feudalism/feudalism$ +^characteristic/characteristic$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^High/High$ +^Middle Ages/Middle Ages$ +^in/in$ +^both/both$ +^the/the$ +^Holy/Holy$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^and/and$ +^Anglo/*Anglo$ +^-/-$ +^Norman/*Norman$ +^England/England$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^11th/11$ +^to/to$ +^12th/12$ +^centuries/century$ +^,/,$ +^to some extent/to some extent$ +^under the influence/under the influence$ +^of/of$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^law/law$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^indirect/indirect$ +^result/result$ +^of/of$ +^Christianisation/Christianisation$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^also/also$ +^because/because$ +^political/political$ +^structures/structure$ +^had/have$ +^grown/grow$ +^too/too$ +^large/large$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^flat/flat$ +^hierarchy/hierarchy$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^tribal/tribal$ +^society/society$ +^./.$ +^The same/The same$ +^effect/effect$ +^of/of$ +^political/political$ +^centralisation/centralisation$ +^takes/take$ +^hold/hold$ +^in/in$ +^Scandinavia/Scandinavia$ +^slightly/slightly$ +^later/later$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^12th/12$ +^to/to$ +^13th century/13th century$ +^(/($ +^Age/Age$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Sturlungs/Sturlungs$ +^,/,$ +^Consolidation/Consolidation$ +^of/of$ +^Sweden/Sweden$ +^,/,$ +^Civil war/Civil war$ +^era/era$ +^in/in$ +^Norway/Norway$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^end/end$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^14th century/14th century$ +^culminating/culminate$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^giant/giant$ +^Kalmar/Kalmar$ +^Union/Union$ +^./.$ +^Elements/Element$ +^of/of$ +^tribal/tribal$ +^law/law$ +^,/,$ +^notably/notably$ +^the/the$ +^wager/wager$ +^of/of$ +^battle/battle$ +^,/,$ +^nevertheless/nevertheless$ +^remained/remain$ +^in effect/in effect$ +^throughout/throughout$ +^the/the$ +^Middle Ages/Middle Ages$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^case/case$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Holy/Holy$ +^Roman/Roman$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^establishment/establishment$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Imperial/Imperial$ +^Chamber/Chamber$ +^Court/Court$ +^in the beginning/in the beginning$ +^German/German$ +^Renaissance/Renaissance$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^federalist/federalist$ +^organisation/organisation$ +^of/of$ +^Switzerland/Switzerland$ +^,/,$ +^where/where$ +^cantonal/cantonal$ +^structures/structure$ +^remained/remain$ +^comparatively/comparatively$ +^local/local$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Germanic/Germanic$ +^thing/thing$ +^survived/survive$ +^into/into$ +^the/the$ +^20th century/20th century$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^form/form$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Landsgemeinde/Landsgemeinde$ +^,/,$ +^albeit/albeit$ +^subject/subject$ +^to/to$ +^federal/federal$ +^law/law$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^6/6$ +^April/April$ +^1941/1941$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Kingdom/Kingdom$ +^of/of$ +^Yugoslavia/Yugoslavia$ +^was/be$ +^invaded/invade$ +^from all sides/from all sides$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Axis/Axis$ +^powers/power$ +^,/,$ +^primarily/primarily$ +^by/by$ +^German/German$ +^forces/force$ +^but/but$ +^including/include$ +^Italian/Italian$ +^,/,$ +^Hungarian/Hungarian$ +^and/and$ +^Bulgarian/Bulgarian$ +^formations/formation$ +^as well/as well$ +^./.$ +^During/During$ +^the/the$ +^invasion/invasion$ +^,/,$ +^Belgrade/Belgrade$ +^was/be$ +^bombed/bomb$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Luftwaffe/*Luftwaffe$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^invasion/invasion$ +^lasted/last$ +^little/little$ +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^ten/ten$ +^days/day$ +^,/,$ +^ending/end$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^unconditional/unconditional$ +^surrender/surrender$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Royal/Royal$ +^Yugoslav/Yugoslav$ +^Army/Army$ +^on/on$ +^17/17$ +^April/April$ +^./.$ +^Besides/Besides$ +^being/be$ +^hopelessly/hopelessly$ +^ill/ill$ +^-/-$ +^equipped/equip$ +^when/when$ +^compared/compare$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Wehrmacht/*Wehrmacht$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Army/Army$ +^attempted/attempt$ +^to/to$ +^defend/defend$ +^all/all$ +^borders/border$ +^but/but$ +^only/only$ +^managed/manage$ +^to/to$ +^thinly/*thinly$ +^spread/spread$ +^the/the$ +^limited/limit$ +^resources/resource$ +^available/available$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^terms/term$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^capitulation/capitulation$ +^were/be$ +^extremely/extremely$ +^severe/severe$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^Axis/Axis$ +^proceeded/proceed$ +^to/to$ +^dismember/*dismember$ +^Yugoslavia/Yugoslavia$ +^./.$ +^Germany/Germany$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^northern/northern$ +^Slovenia/Slovenia$ +^,/,$ +^while/while$ +^retaining/retain$ +^direct/direct$ +^occupation/occupation$ +^over/over$ +^a/a$ +^rump/rump$ +^Serbian/Serbian$ +^state/state$ +^and/and$ +^considerable/considerable$ +^influence/influence$ +^over/over$ +^its/prpers$ +^newly/newly$ +^created/create$ +^puppet/puppet$ +^state/state$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Independent/Independent$ +^State/State$ +^of/of$ +^Croatia/Croatia$ +^(/($ +^NDH/NDH$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^extended/extend$ +^over/over$ +^much/much$ +^of/of$ +^today/today$ +^'s/'s$ +^Croatia/Croatia$ +^and/and$ +^contained/contain$ +^all/all$ +^of/of$ +^modern/modern$ +^Bosnia and Herzegovina/Bosnia and Herzegovina$ +^and/and$ +^Syrmia/*Syrmia$ +^region/region$ +^of/of$ +^modern/modern$ +^day/day$ +^Serbia/Serbia$ +^./.$ +^Mussolini/Mussolini$ +^'s/'s$ +^Italy/Italy$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^the/the$ +^remainder/remainder$ +^of/of$ +^Slovenia/Slovenia$ +^(/($ +^annexed/annex$ +^and/and$ +^renamed/rename$ +^Province/Province$ +^of/of$ +^Ljubljana/*Ljubljana$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^Kosovo/Kosovo$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^large/large$ +^chunks/*chunks$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^coastal/coastal$ +^Dalmatia/*Dalmatia$ +^region/region$ +^(/($ +^along with/along with$ +^nearly/nearly$ +^all/all$ +^its/prpers$ +^Adriatic/Adriatic$ +^islands/island$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^also/also$ +^gained/gain$ +^control/control$ +^over/over$ +^the/the$ +^newly/newly$ +^created/create$ +^Montenegrin/*Montenegrin$ +^puppet/puppet$ +^state/state$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^was/be$ +^granted/grant$ +^the/the$ +^kingship/*kingship$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Independent/Independent$ +^State/State$ +^of/of$ +^Croatia/Croatia$ +^,/,$ +^though/though$ +^wielding/wield$ +^little/little$ +^real/real$ +^power/power$ +^within/within$ +^it/prpers$ +^./.$ +^Hungary/Hungary$ +^dispatched/*dispatched$ +^the/the$ +^Hungarian/Hungarian$ +^Third/Third$ +^Army/Army$ +^to/to$ +^occupy/occupy$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^Serbian/Serbian$ +^Vojvodina/*Vojvodina$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^Baranja/*Baranja$ +^and/and$ +^Backa/*Backa$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^annexed/annex$ +^the/the$ +^Croatian/Croatian$ +^area/area$ +^of/of$ +^Medimurje/*Medimurje$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Slovene/*Slovene$ +^area/area$ +^of/of$ +^Prekmurje/*Prekmurje$ +^./.$ +^Bulgaria/Bulgaria$ +^,/,$ +^meanwhile/meanwhile$ +^,/,$ +^annexed/annex$ +^nearly/nearly$ +^all/all$ +^of/of$ +^Macedonia/Macedonia$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^small/small$ +^areas/area$ +^of/of$ +^eastern/eastern$ +^Serbia/Serbia$ +^and/and$ +^Kosovo/Kosovo$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^dissolution/dissolution$ +^of/of$ +^Yugoslavia/Yugoslavia$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^creation/creation$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^NDH/NDH$ +^,/,$ +^Independent/Independent$ +^State/State$ +^of/of$ +^Montenegro/Montenegro$ +^and/and$ +^Nedic/*Nedic$ +^'s/'s$ +^Serbia/Serbia$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^annexations/annexation$ +^of/of$ +^Yugoslav/Yugoslav$ +^territory/territory$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^various/various$ +^Axis/Axis$ +^countries/country$ +^were/be$ +^incompatible/incompatible$ +^with/with$ +^international/international$ +^law/law$ +^in force/in force$ +^at that time/at that time$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^occupying/occupy$ +^forces/force$ +^instituted/*instituted$ +^such/such$ +^severe/severe$ +^burdens/burden$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^local/local$ +^populace/*populace$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^Partisans/*Partisans$ +^came/come$ +^not/not$ +^only/only$ +^to/to$ +^enjoy/enjoy$ +^widespread/widespread$ +^support/support$ +^but/but$ +^for/for$ +^many/many$ +^were/be$ +^the/the$ +^only/only$ +^option/option$ +^for/for$ +^survival/survival$ +^./.$ +^Early/Early$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^occupation/occupation$ +^,/,$ +^German/German$ +^forces/force$ +^would/will$ +^hang/hang$ +^or/or$ +^shoot/shoot$ +^indiscriminately/indiscriminately$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^women/woman$ +^,/,$ +^children/child$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^elderly/elderly$ +^,/,$ +^up to/up to$ +^100/100$ +^local/local$ +^inhabitants/inhabitant$ +^for/for$ +^every/every$ +^one/one$ +^German/German$ +^soldier/soldier$ +^killed/kill$ +^./.$ +^Furthermore/Furthermore$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^country/country$ +^experienced/experience$ +^a/a$ +^breakdown/breakdown$ +^of/of$ +^law/law$ +^and/and$ +^order/order$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^collaborationist/collaborationist$ +^militias/militia$ +^roaming/roam$ +^the/the$ +^countryside/countryside$ +^terrorising/*terrorising$ +^the/the$ +^population/population$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^government/government$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^puppet/puppet$ +^Independent/Independent$ +^State/State$ +^of/of$ +^Croatia/Croatia$ +^found/find$ +^itself/itself$ +^unable/unable$ +^to/to$ +^control/control$ +^its/prpers$ +^territory/territory$ +^in the early stages/in the early stages$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^occupation/occupation$ +^,/,$ +^resulting/result$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^severe/severe$ +^crackdown/crackdown$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Ustase/*Ustase$ +^militias/militia$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^German/German$ +^army/army$ +^./.$ +^Amid/Amid$ +^the/the$ +^relative/relative$ +^chaos/chaos$ +^that/that$ +^ensued/*ensued$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Communist Party/Communist party$ +^of/of$ +^Yugoslavia/Yugoslavia$ +^moved/move$ +^to/to$ +^organise/organise$ +^and/and$ +^unite/unite$ +^anti/*anti$ +^-/-$ +^fascist/fascist$ +^factions/faction$ +^and/and$ +^political/political$ +^forces/force$ +^into/into$ +^a/a$ +^nation/nation$ +^-/-$ +^wide/wide$ +^uprising/uprising$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^party/party$ +^,/,$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^Josip/*Josip$ +^Broz/*Broz$ +^Tito/Tito$ +^,/,$ +^was/be$ +^banned/ban$ +^after/after$ +^its/prpers$ +^significant/significant$ +^success/success$ +^in the post/in the post$ +^-/-$ +^World War/World war$ +^I/*I$ +^Yugoslav/Yugoslav$ +^elections/election$ +^and/and$ +^operated/operate$ +^underground/underground$ +^since/since$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^oldest/old$ +^civilisations/civilisation$ +^appeared/appear$ +^circa/circa$ +^6000/6000$ +^BC/*BC$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^coastal/coastal$ +^provinces/province$ +^of/of$ +^Chilca/*Chilca$ +^and/and$ +^Paracas/*Paracas$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^highland/highland$ +^province/province$ +^of/of$ +^Callejón/*Callejón$ +^de/*de$ +^Huaylas/*Huaylas$ +^./.$ +^Over/Over$ +^the/the$ +^following/following$ +^three thousand/three thousand$ +^years/year$ +^,/,$ +^inhabitants/inhabitant$ +^switched/switch$ +^from/from$ +^nomadic/nomadic$ +^lifestyles/lifestyle$ +^to/to$ +^cultivating/cultivate$ +^land/land$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^evidence/evidence$ +^from/from$ +^sites/site$ +^such as/such as$ +^Jiskairumoko/*Jiskairumoko$ +^,/,$ +^Kotosh/*Kotosh$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Huaca/*Huaca$ +^Prieta/*Prieta$ +^demonstrates/demonstrate$ +^./.$ +^Cultivation/Cultivation$ +^of/of$ +^plants/plant$ +^such as/such as$ +^corn/corn$ +^and/and$ +^cotton/cotton$ +^(/($ +^Gossypium/*Gossypium$ +^Barbadense/*Barbadense$ +^)/)$ +^began/begin$ +^,/,$ +^as well as/as well as$ +^the/the$ +^domestication/domestication$ +^of/of$ +^animals/animal$ +^such as/such as$ +^the/the$ +^wild/wild$ +^ancestors/ancestor$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^llama/llama$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^alpaca/alpaca$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^guinea pig/guinea pig$ +^./.$ +^Inhabitants/Inhabitant$ +^practiced/practice$ +^spinning/spin$ +^and/and$ +^knitting/knit$ +^of/of$ +^cotton/cotton$ +^and/and$ +^wool/wool$ +^,/,$ +^basketry/*basketry$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^pottery/pottery$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^cultures/culture$ +^developed/develop$ +^relatively/relatively$ +^advanced/advanced$ +^techniques/technique$ +^of/of$ +^cultivation/cultivation$ +^,/,$ +^gold/gold$ +^and/and$ +^silver/silver$ +^craft/craft$ +^,/,$ +^pottery/pottery$ +^,/,$ +^metallurgy/metallurgy$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^knitting/knit$ +^./.$ +^Around/Around$ +^700/700$ +^BC/*BC$ +^,/,$ +^they/prpers$ +^appear/appear$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^developed/develop$ +^systems/system$ +^of/of$ +^social/social$ +^organisation/organisation$ +^that/that$ +^were/be$ +^the/the$ +^precursors/precursor$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^civilisation/civilisation$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^empire/empire$ +^originated/originate$ +^from/from$ +^a/a$ +^tribe/tribe$ +^based/base$ +^in/in$ +^Cuzco/*Cuzco$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^became/become$ +^the/the$ +^capital/capital$ +^./.$ +^Pachacutec/*Pachacutec$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^first/first$ +^ruler/ruler$ +^to/to$ +^considerably/considerably$ +^expand/expand$ +^the/the$ +^boundaries/boundary$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Cuzco/*Cuzco$ +^state/state$ +^./.$ +^His/Prpers$ +^offspring/offspring$ +^later/later$ +^ruled/rule$ +^an/a$ +^empire/empire$ +^by/by$ +^both/both$ +^violent/violent$ +^and/and$ +^peaceful/peaceful$ +^conquest/conquest$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^'s/'s$ +^administrative/administrative$ +^,/,$ +^political/political$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^military/military$ +^centre/centre$ +^was/be$ +^located/locate$ +^in/in$ +^Cuzco/*Cuzco$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^empire/empire$ +^was/be$ +^divided/divide$ +^into/into$ +^four/four$ +^quarters/quarter$ +^:/:$ +^Chinchasuyo/*Chinchasuyo$ +^,/,$ +^Antisuyo/*Antisuyo$ +^,/,$ +^Contisuyo/*Contisuyo$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Collasuyo/*Collasuyo$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Tahuantinsuyo/*Tahuantinsuyo$ +^was/be$ +^organised/organise$ +^in/in$ +^dominions/*dominions$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^stratified/stratify$ +^society/society$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^which/which$ +^the/the$ +^ruler/ruler$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^was/be$ +^also/also$ +^supported/support$ +^by/by$ +^an/a$ +^economy/economy$ +^based/base$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^collective/collective$ +^property/property$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^land/land$ +^./.$ +^In fact/In fact$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^was/be$ +^conceived/conceive$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^ambitious/ambitious$ +^and/and$ +^audacious/audacious$ +^civilising/civilise$ +^project/project$ +^,/,$ +^based/base$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^mythical/mythical$ +^thought/thought$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^which/which$ +^the/the$ +^harmony/harmony$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^relationships/relationship$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^human being/human being$ +^,/,$ +^nature/nature$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^gods/god$ +^was/be$ +^truly/truly$ +^essential/essential$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^empire/empire$ +^,/,$ +^being/be$ +^quite/quite$ +^large/large$ +^,/,$ +^also/also$ +^had/have$ +^an/a$ +^impressive/impressive$ +^transportation/transportation$ +^system/system$ +^of/of$ +^roads/road$ +^to/to$ +^all/all$ +^points/point$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^empire/empire$ +^called/call$ +^the/the$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^Trail/Trail$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^chasquis/*chasquis$ +^,/,$ +^message/message$ +^carriers/carrier$ +^who/who$ +^relayed/*relayed$ +^information/information$ +^from/from$ +^anywhere/anywhere$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^empire/empire$ +^to/to$ +^Cuzco/*Cuzco$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^landed/land$ +^in/in$ +^1531/1531$ +^,/,$ +^Peru/Peru$ +^'s/'s$ +^territory/territory$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^nucleus/nucleus$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^highly/highly$ +^developed/develop$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^civilisation/civilisation$ +^./.$ +^Centered/Centre$ +^at/at$ +^Cuzco/*Cuzco$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^extended/extend$ +^over/over$ +^a/a$ +^vast/vast$ +^region/region$ +^,/,$ +^stretching/stretch$ +^from/from$ +^northern/northern$ +^Ecuador/Ecuador$ +^to/to$ +^central/central$ +^Chile/Chile$ +^./.$ +^At/At$ +^that/that$ +^moment/moment$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^was/be$ +^preoccupied/*preoccupied$ +^by/by$ +^a/a$ +^five/five$ +^-/-$ +^year/year$ +^civil war/civil war$ +^between/between$ +^two/two$ +^princes/prince$ +^,/,$ +^Huáscar/*Huáscar$ +^and/and$ +^Atahualpa/Atahualpa$ +^./.$ +^Taking advantage of/Take# advantage of$ +^this/this$ +^,/,$ +^Pizarro/Pizarro$ +^carried out/carry# out$ +^a/a$ +^coup d'état/coup# d'état$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^November/November$ +^16/16$ +^,/,$ +^1532/1532$ +^,/,$ +^while/while$ +^the/the$ +^natives/native$ +^were/be$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^celebration/celebration$ +^in/in$ +^Cajamarca/*Cajamarca$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^surprise/surprise$ +^move/move$ +^captured/capture$ +^the/the$ +^Inca/Inca$ +^Atahualpa/Atahualpa$ +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^Battle/Battle$ +^of/of$ +^Cajamarca/*Cajamarca$ +^,/,$ +^causing/cause$ +^a/a$ +^great/great$ +^consternation/consternation$ +^among/among$ +^the/the$ +^natives/native$ +^and/and$ +^conditioning/condition$ +^the/the$ +^future/future$ +^course/course$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^fight/fight$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^Huascar/*Huascar$ +^was/be$ +^killed/kill$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^tried/try$ +^and/and$ +^convicted/convict$ +^Atahualpa/Atahualpa$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^murder/murder$ +^,/,$ +^executing/execute$ +^him/prpers$ +^by/by$ +^strangulation/*strangulation$ +^./.$ +^Establishing/Establish$ +^a/a$ +^stable/stable$ +^colonial/colonial$ +^government/government$ +^was/be$ +^delayed/delay$ +^for/for$ +^some/some$ +^time/time$ +^by/by$ +^native/native$ +^revolts/revolt$ +^and/and$ +^bands/band$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Conquistadores/*Conquistadores$ +^(/($ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^Pizarro/Pizarro$ +^and/and$ +^Diego/Diego$ +^de/*de$ +^Almagro/*Almagro$ +^)/)$ +^fighting/fight$ +^among/among$ +^themselves/themselves$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^long/long$ +^civil war/civil war$ +^developed/develop$ +^,/,$ +^from/from$ +^which/which$ +^the/the$ +^Pizarros/Pizarro$ +^emerged/emerge$ +^victorious/victorious$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^Battle/Battle$ +^of/of$ +^Las/*Las$ +^Salinas/*Salinas$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1541/1541$ +^,/,$ +^Pizarro/Pizarro$ +^was/be$ +^assassinated/assassinate$ +^by/by$ +^a/a$ +^faction/faction$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^Diego/Diego$ +^de/*de$ +^Almagro/*Almagro$ +^(/($ +^El/*El$ +^Mozo/*Mozo$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^stability/stability$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^original/original$ +^colonial/colonial$ +^regime/regime$ +^was/be$ +^shaken/shake$ +^up in/up in$ +^the/the$ +^ensuing/*ensuing$ +^civil war/civil war$ +^./.$ +^Despite/Despite$ +^this/this$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Spaniards/Spaniard$ +^did/do$ +^not/not$ +^neglect/neglect$ +^the/the$ +^colonising/colonising$ +^process/process$ +^./.$ +^Its/Prpers$ +^most/most$ +^significant/significant$ +^milestone/milestone$ +^was/be$ +^the/the$ +^foundation/foundation$ +^of/of$ +^Lima/Lima$ +^in/in$ +^January/January$ +^1535/1535$ +^,/,$ +^from/from$ +^which/which$ +^the/the$ +^political/political$ +^and/and$ +^administrative/administrative$ +^institutions/institution$ +^were/be$ +^organised/organise$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^new/new$ +^rulers/ruler$ +^instituted/*instituted$ +^an/a$ +^encomienda/*encomienda$ +^system/system$ +^,/,$ +^by/by$ +^which/which$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^extracted/extract$ +^tribute/tribute$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^local/local$ +^population/population$ +^,/,$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^which/which$ +^was/be$ +^forwarded/forward$ +^to/to$ +^Seville/Seville$ +^in return/in return$ +^for/for$ +^converting/convert$ +^the/the$ +^natives/native$ +^to/to$ +^Christianity/Christianity$ +^./.$ +^Title/Title$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^land/land$ +^itself/itself$ +^remained/remain$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^king/king$ +^of/of$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^governor/governor$ +^of/of$ +^Peru/Peru$ +^,/,$ +^Pizarro/Pizarro$ +^used/use$ +^the/the$ +^encomienda/*encomienda$ +^system/system$ +^to/to$ +^grant/grant$ +^virtually/virtually$ +^unlimited/*unlimited$ +^authority/authority$ +^over/over$ +^groups/group$ +^of/of$ +^native/native$ +^Peruvians/Peruvian$ +^to/to$ +^his/prpers$ +^soldier/soldier$ +^companions/companion$ +^,/,$ +^thus/thus$ +^forming/form$ +^the/the$ +^colonial/colonial$ +^land/land$ +^-/-$ +^tenure/*tenure$ +^structure/structure$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^indigenous/*indigenous$ +^inhabitants/inhabitant$ +^of/of$ +^Peru/Peru$ +^were/be$ +^now/now$ +^expected/expect$ +^to/to$ +^raise/raise$ +^Old/Old$ +^World/World$ +^cattle/cattle$ +^,/,$ +^poultry/*poultry$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^crops/crop$ +^for/for$ +^their/prpers$ +^landlords/landlord$ +^./.$ +^Resistance/Resistance$ +^was/be$ +^punished/punish$ +^severely/severely$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^necessity/*necessity$ +^of/of$ +^consolidating/consolidate$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^royal/royal$ +^authority/authority$ +^over/over$ +^these/this$ +^territories/territory$ +^,/,$ +^led/lead$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^creation/creation$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^Real/*Real$ +^Audiencia/*Audiencia$ +^(/($ +^Royal/Royal$ +^Audience/Audience$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^following/following$ +^year/year$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^1542/1542$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Viceroyalty/Viceroyalty$ +^of/of$ +^Peru/Peru$ +^(/($ +^in Spanish/in Spanish$ +^,/,$ +^Virreinato/*Virreinato$ +^del/*del$ +^Perú/*Perú$ +^)/)$ +^was/be$ +^established/establish$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^authority/authority$ +^over/over$ +^most of/most of$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^-/-$ +^ruled/rule$ +^South America/South America$ +^./.$ +^Colombia/Colombia$ +^,/,$ +^Ecuador/Ecuador$ +^,/,$ +^Panamá/*Panamá$ +^and/and$ +^Venezuela/Venezuela$ +^were/be$ +^split/split$ +^off/off$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^Viceroyalty/Viceroyalty$ +^of/of$ +^New/New$ +^Granada/Granada$ +^(/($ +^in Spanish/in Spanish$ +^,/,$ +^Virreinato/*Virreinato$ +^de/*de$ +^Nueva/*Nueva$ +^Granada/Granada$ +^)/)$ +^in/in$ +^1717/1717$ +^;/;$ +^and/and$ +^Argentina/Argentina$ +^,/,$ +^Bolivia/Bolivia$ +^,/,$ +^Paraguay/Paraguay$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Uruguay/Uruguay$ +^were/be$ +^set up/set# up$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^Viceroyalty/Viceroyalty$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Río/*Río$ +^de/*de$ +^la/*la$ +^Plata/*Plata$ +^in/in$ +^1776/1776$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^creation/creation$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Viceroyalties/Viceroyalty$ +^of/of$ +^New/New$ +^Granada/Granada$ +^and/and$ +^Rio/*Rio$ +^de/*de$ +^la/*la$ +^Plata/*Plata$ +^(/($ +^at the expense of/at the expense of$ +^its/prpers$ +^territory/territory$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^duty/duty$ +^exemptions/exemption$ +^that/that$ +^moved/move$ +^the/the$ +^commercial/commercial$ +^center/centre$ +^from/from$ +^Lima/Lima$ +^to/to$ +^Caracas/Caracas$ +^and/and$ +^Buenos Aires/Buenos Aires$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^decrease/decrease$ +^in/in$ +^mining/mining$ +^and/and$ +^textile/textile$ +^production/production$ +^determined/determine$ +^the/the$ +^progressive/progressive$ +^decay/decay$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Viceroyalty/Viceroyalty$ +^of/of$ +^Peru/Peru$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^economic/economic$ +^crisis/crisis$ +^favoured/favour$ +^the/the$ +^indigenous/*indigenous$ +^rebellion/rebellion$ +^from/from$ +^1780/1780$ +^to/to$ +^1781/1781$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^rebellion/rebellion$ +^was/be$ +^headed by/headed by$ +^Túpac/*Túpac$ +^Amaru/*Amaru$ +^II/II$ +^./.$ +^At this time/At this time$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Napoleonic/Napoleonic$ +^invasion/invasion$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Iberian/Iberian$ +^Peninsula/Peninsula$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^degradation/degradation$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Royal/Royal$ +^power/power$ +^took place/take# place$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Creole/Creole$ +^rebellion/rebellion$ +^of/of$ +^Huánuco/*Huánuco$ +^arose/arise$ +^in/in$ +^1812/1812$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^rebellion/rebellion$ +^of/of$ +^Cuzco/*Cuzco$ +^arose/arise$ +^between/between$ +^1814/1814$ +^and/and$ +^1816/1816$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^rebellions/rebellion$ +^defended/defend$ +^the/the$ +^liberal/liberal$ +^principles/principle$ +^sanctioned/sanction$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Constitution/Constitution$ +^of/of$ +^Cadiz/*Cadiz$ +^of/of$ +^1812/1812$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^events/event$ +^created/create$ +^a/a$ +^favourable/favourable$ +^climate/climate$ +^so that/so that$ +^emancipating/*emancipating$ +^ideas/idea$ +^developed/develop$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^Criollo/*Criollo$ +^people/person$ +^throughout/throughout$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^America/America$ 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well as$ +^a/a$ +^verdict/verdict$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^International/International$ +^Court/Court$ +^of/of$ +^Justice/Justice$ +^(/($ +^ICJ/ICJ$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^acknowledged/acknowledge$ +^that/that$ +^Western/Western$ +^Sahara/Sahara$ +^had/have$ +^historical/historical$ +^links/link$ +^with/with$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^and/and$ +^Mauritania/Mauritania$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^the/the$ +^population/population$ +^of/of$ +^this/this$ +^territory/territory$ +^possessed/possess$ +^the/the$ +^right/right$ +^of/of$ +^self-determination/self-determination$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^6/6$ +^November/November$ +^1975/1975$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^initiated/initiate$ +^the/the$ +^Green/Green$ +^March/March$ +^into/into$ +^Western/Western$ +^Sahara/Sahara$ +^;/;$ +^350,000/350,000$ +^unarmed/unarmed$ +^Moroccans/Moroccan$ +^converged/converge$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^of/of$ +^Tarfaya/*Tarfaya$ +^in/in$ +^southern/southern$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^and/and$ +^waited for/wait# for$ +^a/a$ 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+^The/The$ +^accords/accord$ +^were/be$ +^based/base$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^bipartite/*bipartite$ +^administration/administration$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^and/and$ +^Mauritania/Mauritania$ +^each/each$ +^moved/move$ +^to/to$ +^annex/annex$ +^the/the$ +^territories/territory$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^taking/take$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^northern/northern$ +^two/two$ +^-/-$ +^thirds/third$ +^of/of$ +^Western/Western$ +^Sahara/Sahara$ +^as/as$ +^its/prpers$ +^Southern/Southern$ +^Provinces/Province$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^Mauritania/Mauritania$ +^taking/take$ +^control/control$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^southern/southern$ +^third/third$ +^as/as$ +^Tiris/*Tiris$ +^al/*al$ +^-/-$ +^Gharbiyya/*Gharbiyya$ +^./.$ +^Spain/Spain$ +^terminated/terminate$ +^its/prpers$ +^presence/presence$ +^in Spanish/in Spanish$ +^Sahara/Sahara$ +^within/within$ +^three/three$ +^months/month$ +^,/,$ +^repatriating/repatriate$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ +^remains/remains$ +^from/from$ +^its/prpers$ +^cemeteries/cemetery$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Moroccan/Moroccan$ +^and/and$ +^Mauritanian/Mauritanian$ +^annexations/annexation$ +^were/be$ +^resisted/resist$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Polisario Front/Polisario Front$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^had/have$ +^gained/gain$ +^backing/backing$ +^from/from$ +^Algeria/Algeria$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^initiated/initiate$ +^guerrilla warfare/guerrilla warfare$ +^and/and$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^1979/1979$ +^,/,$ +^Mauritania/Mauritania$ +^withdrew/withdraw$ +^due to/due to$ +^pressure/pressure$ +^from/from$ +^Polisario/*Polisario$ +^,/,$ +^including/include$ +^a/a$ +^bombardment/bombardment$ +^of/of$ +^its/prpers$ +^capital/capital$ +^and/and$ +^other/other$ +^economic/economic$ +^targets/target$ +^./.$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^extended/extend$ +^its/prpers$ +^control/control$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^rest/rest$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^territory/territory$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^gradually/gradually$ +^contained/contain$ +^the/the$ +^guerrillas/guerrilla$ 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+^the/the$ +^year/year$ +^2000/2000$ +^,/,$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^considers/consider$ +^that/that$ +^since/since$ +^there/there$ +^is/be$ +^no/no$ +^agreement/agreement$ +^on/on$ +^persons/person$ +^entitled/entitle$ +^to/to$ +^vote/vote$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^referendum/referendum$ +^is/be$ +^not/not$ +^possible/possible$ +^./.$ +^Meanwhile/Meanwhile$ +^,/,$ +^Polisario/*Polisario$ +^still/still$ +^insisted/insist$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^referendum/referendum$ +^with/with$ +^independence/independence$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^clear/clear$ +^option/option$ +^,/,$ +^without/without$ +^offering/offer$ +^a/a$ +^solution/solution$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^problem/problem$ +^of/of$ +^who/who$ +^is/be$ +^qualified/qualified$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^registered/register$ +^to/to$ +^participate/participate$ +^in it/in it$ +^./.$ +^Both/Both$ +^sides/side$ +^blame/blame$ +^each/each$ +^other/other$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^stalling/stall$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^referendum/referendum$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ 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+^./.$ +^By/By$ +^1999/1999$ +^the/the$ +^UN/UN$ +^had/have$ +^identified/identify$ +^about/about$ +^85,000/85,000$ +^voters/voter$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^nearly/nearly$ +^half/half$ +^of/of$ +^them/prpers$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Moroccan/Moroccan$ +^-/-$ +^controlled/control$ +^parts/part$ +^of/of$ +^Western/Western$ +^Sahara/Sahara$ +^or/or$ +^Southern/Southern$ +^Morocco/Morocco$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the others/the other$ +^scattered/scatter$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^Tindouf/*Tindouf$ +^refugee/refugee$ +^camps/camp$ +^,/,$ +^Mauritania/Mauritania$ +^and/and$ +^other/other$ +^places/place$ +^of/of$ +^exile/exile$ +^./.$ +^Polisario/*Polisario$ +^accepted/accept$ +^this/this$ +^voter/voter$ +^list/list$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^it/prpers$ +^had/have$ +^done/do$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^previous/previous$ +^list/list$ +^presented/present$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^UN/UN$ +^(/($ +^both/both$ +^of/of$ +^them/prpers$ +^originally/originally$ +^based/base$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Spanish/Spanish$ 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+^march/march$ +^decided/decide$ +^to/to$ +^allow/allow$ +^it/prpers$ +^to/to$ +^proceed/proceed$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Catholic/Catholic$ +^areas/area$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^to/to$ +^stop/stop$ +^it/prpers$ +^from/from$ +^reaching/reach$ +^Guildhall/*Guildhall$ +^Square/Square$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^planned/plan$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^organisers/organiser$ +^./.$ +^Major/Major$ +^General/General$ +^Robert/Robert$ +^Ford/Ford$ +^,/,$ +^then/then$ +^Commander/Commander$ +^of/of$ +^Land/Land$ +^Forces/Force$ +^in/in$ +^Northern/Northern$ +^Ireland/Ireland$ +^,/,$ +^ordered/order$ +^that/that$ +^1st/1$ +^Battalion/*Battalion$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Parachute/Parachute$ +^Regiment/Regiment$ +^(/($ +^1/1$ +^PARA/PARA$ +^)/)$ +^should/shall$ +^travel/travel$ +^to/to$ +^Derry/*Derry$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^used/use$ +^to/to$ +^arrest/arrest$ +^possible/possible$ +^rioters/*rioters$ +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^march/march$ +^./.$ +^1/1$ +^PARA/PARA$ +^arrived/arrive$ +^in/in$ +^Derry/*Derry$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^morning/morning$ +^of/of$ +^Sunday/Sunday$ +^30/30$ +^January/January$ +^1972/1972$ +^and/and$ +^took/take$ +^up/up$ +^positions/position$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^city/city$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^device/device$ +^using/use$ +^a/a$ +^magnetic field/magnetic field$ +^to/to$ +^confine/confine$ +^a/a$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^shape/shape$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^torus/*torus$ +^./.$ +^Achieving/Achieve$ +^a/a$ +^stable/stable$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^equilibrium/equilibrium$ +^requires/require$ +^magnetic field/magnetic field$ +^lines/line$ +^that/that$ +^move/move$ +^around/around$ +^the/the$ +^torus/*torus$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^helical/*helical$ +^shape/shape$ +^./.$ +^Such a/Such a$ +^helical/*helical$ +^field/field$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^generated/generate$ +^by/by$ +^adding/add$ +^a/a$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^field/field$ +^(/($ +^travelling/travel$ +^around/around$ +^the/the$ +^torus/*torus$ +^in/in$ +^circles/circle$ +^)/)$ +^and/and$ +^a/a$ +^poloidal/*poloidal$ +^field/field$ +^(/($ +^traveling/travel$ +^in/in$ +^circles/circle$ +^orthogonal/orthogonal$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^field/field$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^a/a$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^field/field$ +^is/be$ +^produced/produce$ +^by/by$ +^electromagnets/electromagnet$ +^that/that$ +^surround/surround$ +^the/the$ +^torus/*torus$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^poloidal/*poloidal$ +^field/field$ +^is/be$ +^the/the$ +^result/result$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^electric current/electric current$ +^that/that$ +^flows/flow$ +^inside/inside$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^current/current$ +^is/be$ +^induced/induce$ +^inside/inside$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^second/second$ +^set/set$ +^of/of$ +^electromagnets/electromagnet$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^is/be$ +^one/one$ +^of/of$ +^several/several$ 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+^Although/Although$ +^nuclear/nuclear$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^research/research$ +^began/begin$ +^soon/soon$ +^after/after$ +^World War/World war$ +^II/II$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^programs/program$ +^in/in$ +^various/various$ +^countries/country$ +^were/be$ +^each/each$ +^initially/initially$ +^classified/classify$ +^as/as$ +^secret/secret$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^was/be$ +^not/not$ +^until/until$ +^after/after$ +^the/the$ +^1955/1955$ +^United Nations/United Nations$ +^International/International$ +^Conference/Conference$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^Peaceful/Peaceful$ +^Uses/Use$ +^of/of$ +^Atomic/Atomic$ +^Energy/Energy$ +^in/in$ +^Geneva/Geneva$ +^that/that$ +^programs/program$ +^were/be$ +^declassified/*declassified$ +^and/and$ +^international/international$ +^scientific/scientific$ +^collaboration/collaboration$ +^could/can$ +^take place/take# place$ +^./.$ +^Experimental/Experimental$ +^research/research$ +^of/of$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^systems/system$ +^started/start$ +^in/in$ +^1956/1956$ +^in/in$ +^Kurchatov/*Kurchatov$ +^Institute/Institute$ +^,/,$ +^Moscow/Moscow$ +^by/by$ +^a/a$ +^group/group$ +^of/of$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^scientists/scientist$ +^led/lead$ +^by/by$ +^Lev/*Lev$ +^Artsimovich/*Artsimovich$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^group/group$ +^constructed/construct$ +^the/the$ +^first/first$ +^tokamaks/*tokamaks$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^most/most$ +^successful/successful$ +^being/be$ +^T/*T$ +^-/-$ +^3/3$ +^and/and$ +^its/prpers$ +^larger/large$ +^version/version$ +^T/*T$ +^-/-$ +^4/4$ +^./.$ +^T/*T$ +^-/-$ +^69/69$ +^was/be$ +^tested/test$ +^in/in$ +^1968/1968$ +^in/in$ +^Novosibirsk/*Novosibirsk$ +^,/,$ +^conducting/conduct$ +^the/the$ +^first/first$ +^ever/ever$ +^quasistationary/*quasistationary$ +^thermonuclear/thermonuclear$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^reaction/reaction$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1968/1968$ +^,/,$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^third/third$ +^IAEA/IAEA$ +^International/International$ +^Conference/Conference$ +^on/on$ +^Plasma/Plasma$ +^Physics/Physics$ +^and/and$ 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+^field/field$ +^at all/at all$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^understood/understand$ +^by/by$ +^looking at/look# at$ +^the/the$ +^orbits/orbit$ +^of/of$ +^individual/individual$ +^particles/particle$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^particles/particle$ +^not/not$ +^only/only$ +^spiral/spiral$ +^around/around$ +^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^lines/line$ +^,/,$ +^they/prpers$ +^also/also$ +^drift/drift$ +^across/across$ +^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^./.$ +^Since/Since$ +^a/a$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^field/field$ +^is/be$ +^curved/curve$ +^and/and$ +^decreases/decrease$ +^in/in$ +^strength/strength$ +^moving/move$ +^away/away$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^axis/axis$ +^of/of$ +^rotation/rotation$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^ions/ion$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^electrons/electron$ +^move/move$ +^parallel/parallel$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^axis/axis$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^in/in$ +^opposite/opposite$ +^directions/direction$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^charge/charge$ +^separation/separation$ +^leads/lead$ +^to/to$ +^an/a$ 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+^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^lines/line$ +^./.$ +^For/For$ +^a/a$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^effectively/effectively$ +^confined/confine$ +^by/by$ +^a/a$ +^magnetic field/magnetic field$ +^,/,$ +^there/there$ +^must/must$ +^be/be$ +^a/a$ +^twist/twist$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^lines/line$ +^./.$ +^There/There$ +^are/be$ +^then/then$ +^no longer/no longer$ +^flux/*flux$ +^tubes/tube$ +^that/that$ +^simply/simply$ +^encircle/encircle$ +^the/the$ +^axis/axis$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^,/,$ +^if/if$ +^there/there$ +^is/be$ +^sufficient/sufficient$ +^symmetry/symmetry$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^twist/twist$ +^,/,$ +^flux/*flux$ +^surfaces/surface$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^flux/*flux$ +^surface/surface$ +^will/will$ +^be/be$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^outside/outside$ +^(/($ +^larger/large$ +^major/major$ +^radius/radius$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +" +^low/low$ +^-/-$ +^field/field$ +^side/side$ +" +^)/)$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ 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+^look at/look# at$ +^the/the$ +^effect/effect$ +^of/of$ +^twisting/twist$ +^the/the$ +^field/field$ +^lines/line$ +^is/be$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^electric/electric$ +^field/field$ +^between/between$ +^the/the$ +^top/top$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^bottom/bottom$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^torus/*torus$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^tends/tend$ +^to/to$ +^cause/cause$ +^the/the$ +^outward/*outward$ +^drift/drift$ +^,/,$ +^is/be$ +^shorted/*shorted$ +^out/out$ +^because/because$ +^there/there$ +^are/be$ +^now/now$ +^field/field$ +^lines/line$ +^connecting/connect$ +^the/the$ +^top/top$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^bottom/bottom$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^the/the$ +^problem/problem$ +^is/be$ +^considered/consider$ +^even more/even more$ +^closely/closely$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^need/need$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^vertical/vertical$ +^(/($ +^parallel/parallel$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^axis/axis$ +^of/of$ +^rotation/rotation$ +^)/)$ +^component/component$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^magnetic field/magnetic field$ +^arises/arise$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Lorentz/Lorentz$ +^force/force$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^current/current$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^vertical/vertical$ +^field/field$ +^provides/provide$ +^the/the$ +^inward/*inward$ +^force/force$ +^that/that$ +^holds/hold$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^torus/*torus$ +^in equilibrium/in equilibrium$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^device/device$ +^where/where$ +^a/a$ +^large/large$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^current/current$ +^is/be$ +^established/establish$ +^(/($ +^15/15$ +^Mega/*Mega$ +^-/-$ +^amps/*amps$ +^in/in$ +^ITER/ITER$ +^)/)$ +^suffers/suffer$ +^from/from$ +^a/a$ +^fundamental/fundamental$ +^problem/problem$ +^of/of$ +^stability/stability$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^nonlinear/*nonlinear$ +^evolution/evolution$ +^of/of$ +^magnetohydrodynamical/*magnetohydrodynamical$ +^instabilities/*instabilities$ +^leads/lead$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^dramatic/dramatic$ +^quench/*quench$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^current/current$ +^on/on$ +^a/a$ +^very/very$ +^short/short$ +^time/time$ +^scale/scale$ +^,/,$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^order/order$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^millisecond/millisecond$ +^./.$ +^Very/Very$ +^energetic/energetic$ +^electrons/electron$ +^are/be$ +^created/create$ +^(/($ +^runaway/*runaway$ +^electrons/electron$ +^)/)$ +^and/and$ +^a/a$ +^global/global$ +^loss/loss$ +^of/of$ +^confinement/confinement$ +^is/be$ +^finally/finally$ +^obtained/obtain$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^very/very$ +^high/high$ +^energy/energy$ +^is/be$ +^deposited/deposit$ +^on/on$ +^small/small$ +^areas/area$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^phenomenon/phenomenon$ +^is called/be# called$ +^a/a$ +^major/major$ +^disruption/disruption$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^occurrence/occurrence$ +^of/of$ +^major/major$ +^disruptions/disruption$ +^in/in$ +^running/run$ +^tokamaks/*tokamaks$ +^has/have$ +^always/always$ +^been/be$ +^rather/rather$ +^high/high$ +^,/,$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^order/order$ +^of/of$ +^a few/a few$ +^percent/percent$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^total/total$ +^numbers/number$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^shots/shot$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^currently/currently$ +^-/-$ +^operated/operate$ +^tokamaks/*tokamaks$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^damage/damage$ +^is/be$ +^often/often$ +^large/large$ +^but/but$ +^rarely/rarely$ +^dramatic/dramatic$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^ITER/ITER$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^expected/expect$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^occurrence/occurrence$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^limited/limit$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^major/major$ +^disruptions/disruption$ +^will/will$ +^definitively/definitively$ +^damage/damage$ +^the/the$ +^chamber/chamber$ +^with/with$ +^no/no$ +^possibility/possibility$ +^to/to$ +^restore/restore$ +^the/the$ +^device/device$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^an/a$ +^operating/operate$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^,/,$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^energy/energy$ +^generated/generate$ +^will/will$ +^serve/serve$ +^to/to$ +^maintain/maintain$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^as/as$ +^fresh/fresh$ +^deuterium/deuterium$ +^and/and$ +^tritium/tritium$ +^are/be$ +^introduced/introduce$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^startup/*startup$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^,/,$ +^either/either$ +^initially/initially$ +^or/or$ +^after/after$ +^a/a$ +^temporary/temporary$ +^shutdown/shutdown$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^will/will$ +^have to/must$ +^be/be$ +^heated/heat$ +^to/to$ +^its/prpers$ +^operating/operate$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^of/of$ +^greater/great$ +^than/than$ +^10/10$ +^keV/*keV$ +^(/($ +^over/over$ +^100/100$ +^million/million$ +^degrees/degree$ +^Celsius/*Celsius$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^current/current$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^(/($ +^and/and$ +^other/other$ +^)/)$ +^magnetic/magnetic$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^experiments/experiment$ +^,/,$ +^insufficient/insufficient$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^energy/energy$ +^is/be$ +^produced/produce$ +^to/to$ +^maintain/maintain$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^./.$ +^Since/Since$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^is/be$ +^an/a$ +^electrical/electrical$ +^conductor/conductor$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^possible/possible$ +^to/to$ +^heat/heat$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^by/by$ +^inducing/induce$ +^a/a$ +^current/current$ +^through/through$ +^it/prpers$ +^;/;$ +^in fact/in fact$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^induced/induce$ +^current/current$ +^that/that$ +^heats/heat$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^usually/usually$ +^provides/provide$ +^most of/most of$ +^the/the$ +^poloidal/*poloidal$ +^field/field$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^current/current$ +^is/be$ +^induced/induce$ +^by/by$ +^slowly/slowly$ +^increasing/increase$ +^the/the$ +^current/current$ +^through/through$ +^an/a$ +^electromagnetic/electromagnetic$ +^winding/winding$ +^linked/link$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^torus/*torus$ +^:/:$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^viewed/view$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^secondary/secondary$ +^winding/winding$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^transformer/transformer$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^is/be$ +^inherently/*inherently$ +^a/a$ +^pulsed/*pulsed$ +^process/process$ +^because/because$ +^there/there$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^limit/limit$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^current/current$ +^through/through$ +^the/the$ +^primary/primary$ +^(/($ +^there/there$ +^are/be$ +^also/also$ +^other/other$ +^limitations/limitation$ +^on/on$ +^long/long$ +^pulses/pulse$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Tokamaks/*Tokamaks$ +^must/must$ +^therefore/therefore$ +^either/either$ +^operate/operate$ +^for short/for short$ +^periods/period$ +^or/or$ +^rely/rely$ +^on/on$ +^other/other$ +^means/means$ +^of/of$ +^heating/heat$ +^and/and$ +^current/current$ +^drive/drive$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^heating/heating$ +^caused/cause$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^induced/induce$ +^current/current$ +^is called/be# called$ +^ohmic/ohmic$ +^(/($ +^or/or$ +^resistive/*resistive$ +^)/)$ +^heating/heating$ +^;/;$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^the same/the same$ +^kind/kind$ +^of/of$ +^heating/heating$ +^that/that$ +^occurs/occur$ +^in/in$ +^an/a$ +^electric/electric$ +^light bulb/light bulb$ +^or/or$ +^in/in$ +^an/a$ +^electric/electric$ +^heater/heater$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^heat/heat$ +^generated/generate$ +^depends/depend$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^resistance/resistance$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^amount/amount$ +^of/of$ +^electric current/electric current$ +^running/run$ +^through/through$ +^it/prpers$ +^./.$ +^But/But$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^of/of$ +^heated/heat$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^rises/rise$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^resistance/resistance$ +^decreases/decrease$ +^and/and$ +^ohmic/ohmic$ +^heating/heating$ +^becomes/become$ +^less/less$ +^effective/effective$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^appears/appear$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^maximum/maximum$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^attainable/attainable$ +^by/by$ +^ohmic/ohmic$ +^heating/heating$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^is/be$ +^20-30/20-30$ +^million/million$ +^degrees/degree$ +^Celsius/*Celsius$ +^./.$ +^To/To$ +^obtain/obtain$ +^still/still$ +^higher/high$ +^temperatures/temperature$ +^,/,$ +^additional/additional$ +^heating/heating$ +^methods/method$ +^must/must$ +^be/be$ +^used/use$ +^./.$ +^Neutral/Neutral$ +^-/-$ +^beam/beam$ +^injection/injection$ +^involves/involve$ +^the/the$ +^introduction/introduction$ +^of/of$ +^high/high$ +^-/-$ +^energy/energy$ +^(/($ +^rapidly/rapidly$ +^moving/move$ +^)/)$ +^atoms/atom$ +^into/into$ +^the/the$ +^ohmically/*ohmically$ +^heated/heat$ +^,/,$ +^magnetically/*magnetically$ +^confined/confine$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^atoms/atom$ +^are/be$ +^ionised/ionise$ +^as/as$ +^they/prpers$ +^pass/pass$ +^through/through$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^and/and$ +^are/be$ +^trapped/trap$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^magnetic field/magnetic field$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^high/high$ +^-/-$ +^energy/energy$ +^ions/ion$ +^then/then$ +^transfer/transfer$ +^part/part$ +^of/of$ +^their/prpers$ +^energy/energy$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^particles/particle$ +^in/in$ +^repeated/repeat$ +^collisions/collision$ +^,/,$ +^increasing/increase$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^gas/gas$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^heated/heat$ +^by/by$ +^sudden/sudden$ +^compression/compression$ +^./.$ +^In the same way/In the same way$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^is/be$ +^increased/increase$ +^if/if$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^compressed/compress$ +^rapidly/rapidly$ +^by/by$ +^increasing/increase$ +^the/the$ +^confining/confine$ +^magnetic field/magnetic field$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^a/a$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^system/system$ +^this/this$ +^compression/compression$ +^is/be$ +^achieved/achieve$ +^simply/simply$ +^by/by$ +^moving/move$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^into/into$ +^a/a$ +^region/region$ +^of/of$ +^higher/high$ +^magnetic field/magnetic field$ +^(/($ +^i.e./i.e.$ +^,/,$ +^radially/*radially$ +^inward/*inward$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^Since/Since$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^compression/compression$ +^brings/bring$ +^the/the$ +^ions/ion$ +^closer/close$ +^together/together$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^process/process$ +^has/have$ +^the/the$ +^additional/additional$ +^benefit/benefit$ +^of/of$ +^facilitating/facilitate$ +^attainment/attainment$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^required/require$ +^density/density$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^./.$ +^High/High$ +^-/-$ +^frequency/frequency$ +^electromagnetic/electromagnetic$ +^waves/wave$ +^are/be$ +^generated/generate$ +^by/by$ +^oscillators/oscillator$ +^(/($ +^often/often$ +^by/by$ +^gyrotrons/*gyrotrons$ +^or/or$ +^klystrons/klystron$ +^)/)$ +^outside/outside$ +^the/the$ +^torus/*torus$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^the/the$ +^waves/wave$ +^have/have$ +^the/the$ +^correct/correct$ +^frequency/frequency$ +^(/($ +^or/or$ +^wavelength/wavelength$ +^)/)$ +^and/and$ +^polarisation/polarisation$ +^,/,$ +^their/prpers$ +^energy/energy$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^transferred/transfer$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^charged/charge$ +^particles/particle$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^in turn/in turn$ +^collide/collide$ +^with/with$ +^other/other$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^particles/particle$ +^,/,$ +^thus/thus$ +^increasing/increase$ +^the/the$ +^temperature/temperature$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^bulk/*bulk$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^./.$ +^Various/Various$ +^techniques/technique$ +^exist/exist$ +^including/include$ +^electron/electron$ +^cyclotron/cyclotron$ +^resonance/resonance$ +^heating/heating$ +^(/($ +^ECRH/ECRH$ +^)/)$ +^and/and$ +^ion/ion$ +^cyclotron/cyclotron$ +^resonance/resonance$ +^heating/heating$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^energy/energy$ +^is/be$ +^usually/usually$ +^transferred/transfer$ +^by/by$ +^microwaves/microwave$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^reactions/reaction$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^spiraling/*spiraling$ +^around/around$ +^a/a$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^produce/produce$ +^large/large$ +^amounts/amount$ +^of/of$ +^high/high$ +^-/-$ +^energy/energy$ +^neutrons/neutron$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^neutrons/neutron$ +^,/,$ +^being/be$ +^electrically/electrically$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^,/,$ +^are/be$ +^no longer/no longer$ +^held/hold$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^stream/stream$ +^of/of$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^toroidal/*toroidal$ +^magnets/magnet$ +^and/and$ +^continue/continue$ +^until/until$ +^stopped/stop$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^inside/inside$ +^wall/wall$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^is/be$ +^a/a$ +^large/large$ +^advantage/advantage$ +^of/of$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^reactors/reactor$ +^since/since$ +^these/this$ +^freed/free$ +^neutrons/neutron$ +^provide/provide$ +^a/a$ +^simple/simple$ +^way/way$ +^to/to$ +^extract/extract$ +^heat/heat$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^plasma/plasma$ +^stream/stream$ +^;/;$ +^this/this$ +^is/be$ +^how/how$ +^the/the$ +^fusion/fusion$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^generates/generate$ +^usable/usable$ +^energy/energy$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^inside/inside$ +^wall/wall$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^tokamak/*tokamak$ +^must/must$ +^be/be$ +^cooled/cool$ +^because/because$ +^these/this$ +^neutrons/neutron$ +^yield/yield$ +^enough/enough$ +^energy/energy$ +^to/to$ +^melt/melt$ +^the/the$ +^walls/wall$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^cryogenic/cryogenic$ +^system/system$ +^is/be$ +^used/use$ +^to/to$ +^prevent/prevent$ +^heat/heat$ +^loss/loss$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^superconducting/superconducting$ +^magnets/magnet$ +^./.$ +^Mostly/Mostly$ +^liquid/liquid$ +^helium/helium$ +^and/and$ +^liquid/liquid$ +^nitrogen/nitrogen$ +^are/be$ +^used/use$ +^as/as$ +^refrigerants/refrigerant$ +^./.$ +^Ceramic/Ceramic$ +^plates/plate$ +^specifically/specifically$ +^designed/design$ +^to/to$ +^withstand/*withstand$ +^high/high$ +^temperatures/temperature$ +^are/be$ +^also/also$ +^placed/place$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^inside/inside$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^wall/wall$ +^to/to$ +^protect/protect$ +^the/the$ +^magnets/magnet$ +^and/and$ +^reactor/reactor$ +^./.$ +^Manual/Manual$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^often/often$ +^feature/feature$ +^a/a$ +^driver/driver$ +^-/-$ +^operated/operate$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^and/and$ +^a/a$ +^movable/movable$ +^gear/gear$ +^stick/stick$ +^./.$ +^Most/Most$ +^automobile/automobile$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^allow/allow$ +^the/the$ +^driver/driver$ +^to/to$ +^select/select$ +^any/any$ +^forward/forward$ +^gear/gear$ +^ratio/ratio$ +^(/($ +" +^gear/gear$ +" +^)/)$ +^at/at$ +^any/any$ +^time/time$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^some/some$ +^,/,$ +^such as/such as$ +^those/that$ +^commonly/commonly$ +^mounted/mount$ +^on/on$ +^motorcycles/motorcycle$ +^and/and$ +^some/some$ +^types/type$ +^of/of$ +^racing/racing$ +^cars/car$ +^,/,$ +^only/only$ +^allow/allow$ +^the/the$ +^driver/driver$ +^to/to$ +^select/select$ +^the/the$ +^next/next$ +^-/-$ +^higher/high$ +^or/or$ +^next/next$ +^-/-$ +^lower/low$ +^gear/gear$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^type/type$ +^of/of$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^is/be$ +^sometimes/sometimes$ +^called/call$ +^a/a$ +^sequential/sequential$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^way/way$ +^a/a$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^works/work$ +^is/be$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^flywheel/flywheel$ +^is/be$ +^attached/attach$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^disk/disk$ +^is/be$ +^in between/in between$ +^the/the$ +^pressure/pressure$ +^plate/plate$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^flywheel/flywheel$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^running/run$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^disk/disk$ +^spins/spin$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^flywheel/flywheel$ +^./.$ +^As/As$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^pedal/pedal$ +^is/be$ +^depressed/depress$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^throw/throw$ +^out/out$ +^bearing/bearing$ +^is/be$ +^pushed/push$ +^in/in$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^makes/make$ +^the/the$ +^pressure/pressure$ +^plate/plate$ +^stop/stop$ +^applying/apply$ +^pressure/pressure$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^disk/disk$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^makes/make$ +^it/prpers$ +^stop/stop$ +^receiving/receive$ +^power/power$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^so that/so that$ +^the/the$ +^gear/gear$ +^can/can$ +^be/be$ +^shifted/shift$ +^without/without$ +^damaging/damage$ +^the/the$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^pedal/pedal$ +^is/be$ +^released/release$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^disk/disk$ +^is allowed to/be# allowed to$ +^start/start$ +^receiving/receive$ +^power/power$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^./.$ +^Manual/Manual$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^are/be$ +^characterised/characterise$ +^by/by$ +^gear/gear$ +^ratios/ratio$ +^that/that$ +^are/be$ +^selectable/selectable$ +^by/by$ +^locking/lock$ +^selected/select$ +^gear/gear$ +^pairs/pair$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^output/output$ +^shaft/shaft$ +^inside/inside$ +^the/the$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^./.$ +^Conversely/Conversely$ +^,/,$ +^most/most$ +^automatic/automatic$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^feature/feature$ +^epicyclic/*epicyclic$ +^(/($ +^planetary/planetary$ +^)/)$ +^gearing/gearing$ +^controlled/control$ +^by/by$ +^brake/brake$ +^bands/band$ +^and/and$ +^or/or$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^packs/pack$ +^to/to$ +^select/select$ +^gear/gear$ +^ratio/ratio$ +^./.$ +^Automatic/Automatic$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^that/that$ +^allow/allow$ +^the/the$ +^driver/driver$ +^to/to$ +^manually/manually$ +^select/select$ +^the/the$ +^current/current$ +^gear/gear$ +^are called/be# called$ +^Manumatics/*Manumatics$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^manual/manual$ +^-/-$ +^style/style$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^operated/operate$ +^by/by$ +^computer/computer$ +^is/be$ +^often/often$ +^called/call$ +^an/a$ +^automated/automate$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^rather than/rather than$ +^an/a$ +^automatic/automatic$ +^./.$ +^Contemporary/Contemporary$ +^automobile/automobile$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^typically/typically$ +^use/use$ +^four/four$ +^to/to$ +^six/six$ +^forward/forward$ +^gears/gear$ +^and/and$ +^one/one$ +^reverse/reverse$ +^gear/gear$ +^,/,$ +^although/although$ +^automobile/automobile$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^built/build$ +^with/with$ +^as/as$ +^few/few$ +^as/as$ +^two/two$ +^and/and$ +^as/as$ +^many/many$ +^as/as$ +^eight/eight$ +^gears/gear$ +^./.$ +^Transmission/Transmission$ +^for/for$ +^heavy/heavy$ +^lorries/lorry$ +^and/and$ +^other/other$ +^heavy/heavy$ +^equipment/equipment$ +^usually/usually$ +^have/have$ +^at least/at least$ +^9/9$ +^gears/gear$ +^so/so$ +^the/the$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^can/can$ +^offer/offer$ +^both/both$ +^a/a$ +^wide/wide$ +^range/range$ +^of/of$ +^gears/gear$ +^and/and$ +^close/close$ +^gear/gear$ +^ratios/ratio$ +^to/to$ +^keep/keep$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^running/run$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^power/power$ +^band/band$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^heavy/heavy$ +^vehicle/vehicle$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^have/have$ +^dozens/dozen$ +^of/of$ +^gears/gear$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^many/many$ +^are/be$ +^duplicates/duplicate$ +^,/,$ +^introduced/introduce$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^accident/accident$ +^of/of$ +^combining/combine$ +^gear/gear$ +^sets/set$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +^introduced/introduce$ +^to/to$ +^simplify/simplify$ +^shifting/shift$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^manuals/manual$ +^are/be$ +^referred/refer$ +^to/to$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^number/number$ +^of/of$ +^forward/forward$ +^gears/gear$ +^they/prpers$ +^offer/offer$ +^(/($ +^e.g./e.g.$ +^,/,$ +^5/5$ +^-/-$ +^speed/speed$ +^)/)$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^way/way$ +^of/of$ +^distinguishing/distinguish$ +^between/between$ +^automatic/automatic$ +^or/or$ +^other/other$ +^available/available$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^./.$ +^Similarly/Similarly$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^5/5$ +^-/-$ +^speed/speed$ +^automatic/automatic$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^is/be$ +^referred/refer$ +^to/to$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +" +^5/5$ +^-/-$ +^speed/speed$ +^automatic/automatic$ +" +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^earliest/early$ +^form/form$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^is/be$ +^thought/think$ +^to/to$ +^have/have$ +^been/be$ +^invented/invent$ +^by/by$ +^Louis/Louis$ +^-/-$ +^René/René$ +^Panhard/Panhard$ +^and/and$ +^Emile/Emile$ +^Levassor/Levassor$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^late/late$ +^19th century/19th century$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^type/type$ +^of/of$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^offered/offer$ +^multiple/multiple$ +^gear/gear$ +^ratios/ratio$ +^and/and$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^most/most$ +^cases/case$ +^,/,$ +^reverse/reverse$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^gears/gear$ +^were/be$ +^typically/typically$ +^engaged/engage$ +^by/by$ +^sliding/sliding$ +^them/prpers$ +^on/on$ +^their/prpers$ +^shafts/shaft$ +^(/($ +^hence/hence$ +^the/the$ +^phrase/phrase$ +^shifting/shift$ +^gears/gear$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^required/require$ +^careful/careful$ +^timing/time$ +^and/and$ +^throttle/throttle$ +^manipulation/manipulation$ +^when/when$ +^shifting/shift$ +^,/,$ +^so/so$ +^the/the$ +^gears/gear$ +^would/will$ +^be/be$ +^spinning/spin$ +^at/at$ +^roughly/roughly$ +^the same/the same$ +^speed/speed$ +^when/when$ +^engaged/engage$ +^;/;$ +^otherwise/otherwise$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^teeth/tooth$ +^would/will$ +^refuse/refuse$ +^to/to$ +^mesh/mesh$ +^./.$ +^These/This$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^are called/be# called$ +^sliding/sliding$ +^mesh/mesh$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^or/or$ +^sometimes/sometimes$ +^crash/crash$ +^boxes/box$ +^,/,$ +^because of/because of$ +^the/the$ +^difficulty/difficulty$ +^in/in$ +^changing/change$ +^gears/gear$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^loud/loud$ +^grinding/grind$ +^sound/sound$ +^that/that$ +^often/often$ +^accompanied/accompany$ +^./.$ +^Newer/New$ +^manual/manual$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^on/on$ +^cars/car$ +^have/have$ +^all/all$ +^gears/gear$ +^mesh/mesh$ +^at all times/at all times$ +^and/and$ +^are/be$ +^referred/refer$ +^to/to$ +^as/as$ +^constant/constant$ +^-/-$ +^mesh/mesh$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +" +^synchro/*synchro$ +^-/-$ +^mesh/mesh$ +" +^being/be$ +^a/a$ +^further/far$ +^refinement/refinement$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^constant/constant$ +^mesh/mesh$ +^principle/principle$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^both/both$ +^types/type$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^particular/particular$ +^gear/gear$ +^combination/combination$ +^can/can$ +^only/only$ +^be/be$ +^engaged/engage$ +^when/when$ +^the/the$ +^two/two$ +^parts/part$ +^to/to$ +^engage/engage$ +^(/($ +^either/either$ +^gears/gear$ +^or/or$ +^clutches/clutch$ +^)/)$ +^are/be$ +^at/at$ +^the same/the same$ +^speed/speed$ +^./.$ +^To/To$ +^shift/shift$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^higher/high$ +^gear/gear$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^is/be$ +^put/put$ +^in/in$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^allowed/allow$ +^to/to$ +^slow down/slow# down$ +^until/until$ +^the/the$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^parts/part$ +^for/for$ +^the/the$ +^next/next$ +^gear/gear$ +^are/be$ +^at/at$ +^a/a$ +^proper/proper$ +^speed/speed$ +^to/to$ +^engage/engage$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^vehicle/vehicle$ +^also/also$ +^slows/slow$ +^while/while$ +^in/in$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^and/and$ +^that/that$ +^slows/slow$ +^other/other$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^parts/part$ +^,/,$ +^so/so$ +^the/the$ +^time/time$ +^in/in$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^depends/depend$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^grade/grade$ +^,/,$ +^wind/wind$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^other/other$ +^such/such$ +^factors/factor$ +^./.$ +^To/To$ +^shift/shift$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^lower/low$ +^gear/gear$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^is/be$ +^put/put$ +^in/in$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^throttle/throttle$ +^is/be$ +^used/use$ +^to/to$ +^speed/speed$ +^up/up$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^and/and$ +^thus/thus$ +^the/the$ +^relevant/relevant$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^parts/part$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^match/match$ +^speeds/speed$ +^for/for$ +^engaging/engage$ +^the/the$ +^next/next$ +^lower/low$ +^gear/gear$ +^./.$ +^For/For$ +^both/both$ +^upshifts/*upshifts$ +^and/and$ +^downshifts/*downshifts$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^is/be$ +^released/release$ +^(/($ +^engaged/engage$ +^)/)$ +^while/while$ +^in/in$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^./.$ +^Some/Some$ +^drivers/driver$ +^use/use$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^only/only$ +^for/for$ +^starting/start$ +^from/from$ +^a/a$ +^stop/stop$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^shifts/shift$ +^are/be$ +^done/do$ +^without/without$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^./.$ +^Other/Other$ +^drivers/driver$ +^will/will$ +^depress/depress$ +^(/($ +^disengage/disengage$ +^)/)$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^,/,$ +^shift/shift$ +^to/to$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^,/,$ +^then/then$ +^engage/engage$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^momentarily/momentarily$ +^to/to$ +^force/force$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^parts/part$ +^to/to$ +^match/match$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^speed/speed$ +^,/,$ +^then/then$ +^depress/depress$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^again/again$ +^to/to$ +^shift/shift$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^next/next$ +^gear/gear$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^process/process$ +^called/call$ +^double/double$ +^clutching/clutch$ +^./.$ +^Double/Double$ +^clutching/clutch$ +^is/be$ +^easier/easy$ +^to/to$ +^get/get$ +^smooth/smooth$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^speeds/speed$ +^that/that$ +^are/be$ +^close/close$ +^but/but$ +^not quite/not quite$ +^matched/match$ +^need/need$ +^to/to$ +^speed/speed$ +^up/up$ +^or/or$ +^slow down/slow# down$ +^only/only$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^parts/part$ +^,/,$ +^whereas/whereas$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^engaged/engage$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^,/,$ +^mismatched/*mismatched$ +^speeds/speed$ +^are/be$ +^fighting/fight$ +^the/the$ +^rotational/rotational$ +^inertia/inertia$ +^and/and$ +^power/power$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^engine/engine$ +^./.$ +^Even though/Even though$ +^automobile/automobile$ +^and/and$ +^light/light$ +^lorry/lorry$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^are/be$ +^now/now$ +^almost/almost$ +^universally/universally$ +^synchronised/synchronise$ +^,/,$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^for/for$ +^heavy/heavy$ +^lorries/lorry$ +^and/and$ +^machinery/machinery$ +^,/,$ +^motorcycles/motorcycle$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^for/for$ +^dedicated/dedicate$ +^racing/race$ +^are/be$ +^usually/usually$ +^not/not$ +^./.$ +^Non/Non$ +^-/-$ +^synchronised/synchronise$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^designs/design$ +^are/be$ +^used/use$ +^for/for$ +^several/several$ +^reasons/reason$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^friction/friction$ +^material/material$ +^,/,$ +^such as/such as$ +^brass/brass$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^synchronisers/synchroniser$ +^is/be$ +^more/more$ +^prone/*prone$ +^to/to$ +^wear/wear$ +^and/and$ +^breakage/breakage$ +^than/than$ +^gears/gear$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^are/be$ +^forged/forge$ +^steel/steel$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^simplicity/simplicity$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^mechanism/mechanism$ +^improves/improve$ +^reliability/reliability$ +^and/and$ +^reduces/reduce$ +^cost/cost$ +^./.$ +^In addition/In addition$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^process/process$ +^of/of$ +^shifting/shift$ +^a/a$ +^synchromesh/*synchromesh$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^is/be$ +^slower/slow$ +^than/than$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^shifting/shift$ +^a/a$ +^non/non$ +^-/-$ +^synchromesh/*synchromesh$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^./.$ +^For/For$ +^racing/race$ +^of/of$ +^production/production$ +^-/-$ +^based/base$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^,/,$ +^sometimes/sometimes$ +^half/half$ +^the/the$ +^teeth/tooth$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^dog/dog$ +^clutches/clutch$ +^are/be$ +^removed/remove$ +^to/to$ +^speed/speed$ +^the/the$ +^shifting/shift$ +^process/process$ +^,/,$ +^at the expense of/at the expense of$ +^greater/great$ +^wear/wear$ +^./.$ +^Heavy/Heavy$ +^duty/duty$ +^lorries/lorry$ +^often/often$ +^use/use$ +^unsynchronised/unsynchronised$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^,/,$ +^though/though$ +^military/military$ +^lorries/lorry$ +^usually/usually$ +^have/have$ +^synchronised/synchronise$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^,/,$ +^allowing/allow$ +^untrained/untrained$ +^personnel/personnel$ +^to/to$ +^operate/operate$ +^them/prpers$ +^in/in$ +^emergencies/emergency$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the United States/the United States$ +^,/,$ +^traffic/traffic$ +^safety/safety$ +^rules/rule$ +^refer/refer$ +^to/to$ +^non/non$ +^-/-$ +^synchronous/synchronous$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^in/in$ +^classes/class$ +^of/of$ +^larger/large$ +^commercial/commercial$ +^motor/motor$ +^vehicles/vehicle$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^Europe/Europe$ +^,/,$ +^heavy/heavy$ +^duty/duty$ +^lorries/lorry$ +^use/use$ +^synchronised/synchronise$ +^gearboxes/gearbox$ +^as/as$ +^standard/standard$ +^./.$ +^Similarly/Similarly$ +^,/,$ +^most/most$ +^modern/modern$ +^motorcycles/motorcycle$ +^use/use$ +^unsynchronised/unsynchronised$ +^transmissions/transmission$ +^:/:$ +^their/prpers$ +^low/low$ +^gear/gear$ +^inertias/inertia$ +^and/and$ +^higher/high$ +^strengths/strength$ +^mean/mean$ +^that/that$ +^forcing/force$ +^the/the$ +^gears/gear$ +^to/to$ +^alter/alter$ +^speed/speed$ +^is/be$ +^not/not$ +^damaging/damaging$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^pedal/pedal$ +^-/-$ +^operated/operate$ +^selector/selector$ +^on/on$ +^modern/modern$ +^motorcycles/motorcycle$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^no/no$ +^neutral/neutral$ +^position/position$ +^between/between$ +^gears/gear$ +^(/($ +^except/except$ +^,/,$ +^commonly/commonly$ +^,/,$ +^1st/1$ +^and/and$ +^2nd/2$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^is/be$ +^not/not$ +^conducive/conducive$ +^to/to$ +^having/have$ +^the/the$ +^long/long$ +^shift/shift$ +^time/time$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^synchronised/synchronise$ +^gearbox/gearbox$ +^./.$ +^Most/Most$ +^modern/modern$ +^manual/manual$ +^-/-$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^vehicles/vehicle$ +^are/be$ +^fitted/fit$ +^with/with$ +^a/a$ +^synchronised/synchronise$ +^gear/gear$ +^box/box$ +^./.$ +^Transmission/Transmission$ +^gears/gear$ +^are/be$ +^always/always$ +^in/in$ +^mesh/mesh$ +^and/and$ +^rotating/rotate$ +^,/,$ +^but/but$ +^gears/gear$ +^on/on$ +^one/one$ +^shaft/shaft$ +^can/can$ +^freely/freely$ +^rotate/rotate$ +^or/or$ +^be/be$ +^locked/lock$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^shaft/shaft$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^locking/lock$ +^mechanism/mechanism$ +^for/for$ +^a/a$ +^gear/gear$ +^consists/consist$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^collar/collar$ +^(/($ +^or/or$ +^dog/dog$ +^collar/collar$ +^)/)$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^shaft/shaft$ +^which/which$ +^is able to/be# able to$ +^slide/slide$ +^sideways/sideways$ +^so that/so that$ +^teeth/tooth$ +^(/($ +^or/or$ +^dogs/dog$ +^)/)$ +^on/on$ +^its/prpers$ +^inner/inner$ +^surface/surface$ +^bridge/bridge$ +^two/two$ +^circular/circular$ +^rings/ring$ +^with/with$ +^teeth/tooth$ +^on/on$ +^their/prpers$ +^outer/outer$ +^circumference/circumference$ +^:/:$ +^one/one$ +^attached/attach$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^gear/gear$ +^,/,$ +^one/one$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^shaft/shaft$ +^./.$ +^When/When$ +^the/the$ +^rings/ring$ +^are/be$ +^bridged/bridge$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^collar/collar$ +^,/,$ +^that/that$ +^particular/particular$ +^gear/gear$ +^is/be$ +^rotationally/rotationally$ +^locked/lock$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^shaft/shaft$ +^and/and$ +^determines/determine$ +^the/the$ +^output/output$ +^speed/speed$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^gearshift/gearshift$ +^lever/lever$ +^manipulates/manipulate$ +^the/the$ +^collars/collar$ +^using/use$ +^a/a$ +^set/set$ +^of/of$ +^linkages/linkage$ +^,/,$ +^so/so$ +^arranged/arrange$ +^so that/so that$ +^one/one$ +^collar/collar$ +^may/may$ +^be permitted/be# permitted$ +^to/to$ +^lock/lock$ +^only/only$ +^one/one$ +^gear/gear$ +^at any one time/at any one time$ +^;/;$ +^when/when$ +" +^shifting/shift$ +^gears/gear$ +" +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^locking/lock$ +^collar/collar$ +^from/from$ +^one/one$ +^gear/gear$ +^is/be$ +^disengaged/disengage$ +^before/before$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^another/another$ +^is/be$ +^engaged/engage$ +^./.$ +^One/One$ +^collar/collar$ +^often/often$ +^serves/serve$ +^for/for$ +^two/two$ +^gears/gear$ +^;/;$ +^sliding/slide$ +^in/in$ +^one/one$ +^direction/direction$ +^selects/select$ +^one/one$ +^transmission/transmission$ +^speed/speed$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^the other/the+other$ +^direction/direction$ +^selects/select$ +^another/another$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^a/a$ +^synchromesh/*synchromesh$ +^gearbox/gearbox$ +^,/,$ +^to/to$ +^correctly/correctly$ +^match/match$ +^the/the$ +^speed/speed$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^gear/gear$ +^to/to$ +^that/that$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^shaft/shaft$ +^as/as$ +^the/the$ +^gear/gear$ +^is/be$ +^engaged/engage$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^collar/collar$ +^initially/initially$ +^applies/apply$ +^a/a$ +^force/force$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^cone/cone$ +^-/-$ +^shaped/shape$ +^brass/brass$ +^clutch/clutch$ +^attached/attach$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^gear/gear$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^brings/bring$ +^the/the$ 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+^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^accepted/accept$ +^treatment/treatment$ +^with/with$ +^female/female$ +^hormones/hormone$ +^(/($ +^chemical/chemical$ +^castration/castration$ +^)/)$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^alternative/alternative$ +^to/to$ +^prison/prison$ +^./.$ +^Turing/Turing$ +^died/die$ +^in/in$ +^1954/1954$ +^,/,$ +^just/just$ +^over/over$ +^two/two$ +^weeks/week$ +^before/before$ +^his/prpers$ +^42nd/42$ +^birthday/birthday$ +^,/,$ +^from/from$ +^cyanide/cyanide$ +^poisoning/poison$ +^./.$ +^An/A$ +^inquest/inquest$ +^determined/determine$ +^that/that$ +^his/prpers$ +^death/death$ +^was/be$ +^suicide/suicide$ +^;/;$ +^his/prpers$ +^mother/mother$ +^and/and$ +^some/some$ +^others/others$ +^believed/believe$ +^his/prpers$ +^death/death$ +^was/be$ +^accidental/accidental$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^10/10$ +^September/September$ +^2009/2009$ +^,/,$ +^following/follow$ +^an/a$ +^Internet/Internet$ +^campaign/campaign$ +^,/,$ +^British/British$ +^Prime Minister/Prime minister$ +^Gordon/Gordon$ +^Brown/Brown$ 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+^him/prpers$ +^at/at$ +^St./St.$ +^Michael/Michael$ +^'s/'s$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^day/day$ +^school/school$ +^at/at$ +^20/20$ +^Charles/Charles$ +^Road/Road$ +^,/,$ +^St./St.$ +^Leonards/*Leonards$ +^-/-$ +^on/on$ +^-/-$ +^Sea/Sea$ +^,/,$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^age/age$ +^of/of$ +^six/six$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^headmistress/headmistress$ +^recognised/recognise$ +^his/prpers$ +^talent/talent$ +^early/early$ +^on/on$ +^,/,$ +^as/as$ +^did/do$ +^many/many$ +^of/of$ +^his/prpers$ +^subsequent/subsequent$ +^teachers/teacher$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1926/1926$ +^,/,$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^age/age$ +^of/of$ +^13/13$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^went on/go# on$ +^to/to$ +^Sherborne/Sherborne$ +^School/School$ +^,/,$ +^a/a$ +^well-known/well-known$ +^independent/independent$ +^school/school$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^market town/market town$ +^of/of$ +^Sherborne/Sherborne$ +^in/in$ +^Dorset/Dorset$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^first/first$ +^day/day$ +^of/of$ +^term/term$ +^coincided/coincide$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ 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+^./.$ +^His/Prpers$ +^headmaster/headmaster$ +^wrote/write$ +^to/to$ +^his/prpers$ +^parents/parent$ +^:/:$ +" +^I/Irpers$ +^hope/hope$ +^he/prpers$ +^will/will$ +^not/not$ +^fall/fall$ +^between/between$ +^two/two$ +^stools/stool$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^he/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^to/to$ +^stay/stay$ +^at/at$ +^public school/public school$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^must/must$ +^aim/aim$ +^at/at$ +^becoming/become$ +^educated/educate$ +^./.$ +^If/If$ +^he/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^solely/solely$ +^a/a$ +^Scientific/Scientific$ +^Specialist/Specialist$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^wasting/waste$ +^his/prpers$ +^time/time$ +^at/at$ +^a/a$ +^public school/public school$ +" +^./.$ +^Despite/Despite$ +^this/this$ +^,/,$ +^Turing/Turing$ +^continued/continue$ +^to/to$ +^show/show$ +^remarkable/remarkable$ +^ability/ability$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^studies/study$ +^he/prpers$ +^loved/love$ +^,/,$ +^solving/solve$ +^advanced/advance$ +^problems/problem$ +^in/in$ +^1927/1927$ +^without/without$ 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+^that/that$ +^he/prpers$ +^had/have$ +^failed/fail$ +^to/to$ +^find out/find# out$ +^that/that$ +^it/prpers$ +^had/have$ +^already/already$ +^been/be$ +^proven/prove$ +^in/in$ +^1922/1922$ +^by/by$ +^Jarl/Jarl$ +^Waldemar/Waldemar$ +^Lindeberg/Lindeberg$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1928/1928$ +^,/,$ +^German/German$ +^mathematician/mathematician$ +^David/David$ +^Hilbert/Hilbert$ +^had/have$ +^called/call$ +^attention/attention$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Entscheidungsproblem/Entscheidungsproblem$ +^(/($ +^decision/decision$ +^problem/problem$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^his/prpers$ +^momentous/momentous$ +^paper/paper$ +" +^On/On$ +^Computable/Computable$ +^Numbers/Number$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^an/a$ +^Application/Application$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^Entscheidungsproblem/Entscheidungsproblem$ +" +^(/($ +^submitted/submit$ +^on/on$ +^28/28$ +^May/May$ +^1936/1936$ +^and/and$ +^delivered/deliver$ +^12/12$ +^November/November$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^Turing/Turing$ +^reformulated/reformulate$ +^Kurt/Kurt$ +^Gödel/Gödel$ +^'s/'s$ +^1931/1931$ +^results/result$ +^on/on$ +^the/the$ +^limits/limit$ +^of/of$ +^proof/proof$ +^and/and$ +^computation/computation$ +^,/,$ +^replacing/replace$ +^Gödel/Gödel$ +^'s/'s$ +^universal/universal$ +^arithmetic/arithmetic$ +^-/-$ +^based/base$ +^formal/formal$ +^language/language$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^formal/formal$ +^and/and$ +^simple/simple$ +^hypothetical/hypothetical$ +^devices/device$ +^that/that$ +^became/become$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^Turing/Turing$ +^machines/machine$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^proved/prove$ +^that/that$ +^some/some$ +^such/such$ +^machine/machine$ +^would/will$ +^be/be$ +^capable/capable$ +^of/of$ +^performing/perform$ +^any/any$ +^conceivable/conceivable$ +^mathematical/mathematical$ +^computation/computation$ +^if/if$ +^it/prpers$ +^were/be$ +^representable/representable$ +^as/as$ +^an/a$ +^algorithm/algorithm$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^went on/go# on$ +^to/to$ +^prove/prove$ +^that/that$ +^there/there$ +^was/be$ +^no/no$ 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+^considerably/considerably$ +^more/more$ +^accessible/accessible$ +^and/and$ +^intuitive/intuitive$ +^than/than$ +^Church/Church$ +^'s/'s$ +^./.$ +^It/Prpers$ +^was/be$ +^also/also$ +^novel/novel$ +^in/in$ +^its/prpers$ +^notion/notion$ +^of/of$ +^a/a$ +^'/'$ +^Universal/Universal$ +^Machine/Machine$ +^'/'$ +^(/($ +^now/now$ +^known/know$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^Universal/Universal$ +^Turing/Turing$ +^machine/machine$ +^)/)$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^idea/idea$ +^that/that$ +^such a/such a$ +^machine/machine$ +^could/can$ +^perform/perform$ +^the/the$ +^tasks/task$ +^of/of$ +^any/any$ +^other/other$ +^machine/machine$ +^,/,$ +^or/or$ +^in other words/in other words$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^provably/provably$ +^capable/capable$ +^of/of$ +^computing/compute$ +^anything/anything$ +^that/that$ +^is/be$ +^computable/computable$ +^./.$ +^in effect/in effect$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^is/be$ +^programmable/programmable$ +^./.$ +^Von Neumann/Von Neumann$ +^acknowledged/acknowledge$ +^that/that$ +^the/the$ +^central/central$ +^concept/concept$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^modern/modern$ +^computer/computer$ +^was/be$ +^due to/due to$ +^this/this$ +^paper/paper$ +^./.$ +^Turing/Turing$ +^machines/machine$ +^are/be$ +^to this day/to this day$ +^a/a$ +^central/central$ +^object/object$ +^of/of$ +^study/study$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^theory/theory$ +^of/of$ +^computation/computation$ +^./.$ +^From/From$ +^September/September$ +^1936/1936$ +^to/to$ +^July/July$ +^1938/1938$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^spent/spend$ +^most of/most of$ +^his/prpers$ +^time/time$ +^studying/study$ +^under/under$ +^Church/Church$ +^at/at$ +^Princeton/Princeton$ +^University/University$ +^./.$ +^In addition to/In addition to$ +^his/prpers$ +^purely/purely$ +^mathematical/mathematical$ +^work/work$ +^,/,$ +^he/prpers$ +^studied/study$ +^cryptology/cryptology$ +^and/and$ +^also/also$ +^built/build$ +^three/three$ +^of/of$ +^four/four$ +^stages/stage$ +^of/of$ +^an/a$ +^electro/*electro$ +^-/-$ 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+^attended/attend$ +^lectures/lecture$ +^given/give$ +^by/by$ +^Ludwig/Ludwig$ +^Wittgenstein/Wittgenstein$ +^about/about$ +^the/the$ +^foundations/foundation$ +^of/of$ +^mathematics/mathematics$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^two/two$ +^argued/argue$ +^and/and$ +^disagreed/disagree$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^Turing/Turing$ +^defending/defend$ +^formalism/formalism$ +^and/and$ +^Wittgenstein/Wittgenstein$ +^propounding/propound$ +^his/prpers$ +^view/view$ +^that/that$ +^mathematics/mathematics$ +^does/do$ +^not/not$ +^discover/discover$ +^any/any$ +^absolute/absolute$ +^truths/truth$ +^but rather/but rather$ +^invents/invent$ +^them/prpers$ +^./.$ +^He/Prpers$ +^also/also$ +^started/start$ +^to/to$ +^work/work$ +^part-time/part-time$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Government/Government$ +^Code/Code$ +^and/and$ +^Cypher/Cypher$ +^School/School$ +^(/($ +^GCCS/*GCCS$ +^)/)$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1941/1941$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Viet/*Viet$ +^Minh/*Minh$ +– +^a/a$ +^communist/communist$ +^and/and$ +^nationalist/nationalist$ +^liberation/*liberation$ +^movement/movement$ +– +^emerged/emerge$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^Marxist/Marxist$ +^-/-$ +^Leninist/*Leninist$ +^revolutionary/revolutionary$ +^Ho/*Ho$ +^Chi/*Chi$ +^Minh/*Minh$ +^,/,$ +^who/who$ +^sought/seek$ +^independence/independence$ +^for/for$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^from/from$ +^France/France$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^end/end$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Japanese/Japanese$ +^occupation/occupation$ +^./.$ +^Following/Follow$ +^the/the$ +^military/military$ +^defeat/defeat$ +^of/of$ +^Japan/Japan$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^fall/fall$ +^of/of$ +^its/prpers$ +^puppet/puppet$ +^Empire/Empire$ +^of/of$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^in/in$ +^August/August$ +^1945/1945$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Viet/*Viet$ +^Minh/*Minh$ +^occupied/occupy$ +^Hanoi/Hanoi$ +^and/and$ +^proclaimed/proclaim$ +^a/a$ +^provisional/provisional$ +^government/government$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^asserted/assert$ +^national/national$ +^independence/independence$ +^on/on$ +^2/2$ +^September/September$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the same/the same$ +^year/year$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Provisional/Provisional$ +^French/French$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^sent/send$ +^the/the$ +^French/French$ +^Far/Far$ +^East/East$ +^Expeditionary/*Expeditionary$ +^Corps/Corps$ +^to/to$ +^restore/restore$ +^colonial/colonial$ +^rule/rule$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Viet/*Viet$ +^Minh/*Minh$ +^began/begin$ +^a/a$ +^guerrilla/guerrilla$ +^campaign/campaign$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^French/French$ +^in/in$ +^late/late$ +^1946/1946$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^resulting/result$ +^First/First$ +^Indochina/*Indochina$ +^War/War$ +^lasted/last$ +^until/until$ +^July/July$ +^1954/1954$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^defeat/defeat$ +^of/of$ +^French/French$ +^and/and$ +^Vietnamese/Vietnamese$ +^loyalists/*loyalists$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^1954/1954$ +^Battle/Battle$ +^of/of$ +^Dien/*Dien$ +^Bien/*Bien$ +^Phu/*Phu$ +^allowed/allow$ +^Ho/*Ho$ +^Chi/*Chi$ +^Minh/*Minh$ +^to/to$ +^negotiate/negotiate$ +^a/a$ +^ceasefire/ceasefire$ +^from/from$ +^a/a$ +^favorable/favourable$ +^position/position$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^subsequent/subsequent$ +^Geneva/Geneva$ +^Conference/Conference$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^colonial/colonial$ +^administration/administration$ +^was/be$ +^ended/end$ +^and/and$ +^French/French$ +^Indochina/*Indochina$ +^was/be$ +^dissolved/dissolve$ +^under/under$ +^the/the$ +^Geneva/Geneva$ +^Accords/Accord$ +^of/of$ +^1954/1954$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^separated/separate$ +^the/the$ +^loyalist/*loyalist$ +^forces/force$ +^from/from$ +^the/the$ +^communists/communist$ +^at/at$ +^the/the$ +^17th/17$ +^parallel/parallel$ +^north/north$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^Vietnamese/Vietnamese$ +^Demilitarised/*Demilitarised$ +^Zone/Zone$ +^./.$ +^Two/Two$ +^states/state$ +^formed/form$ +^after/after$ +^the/the$ +^partition/partition$ +– +^Ho/*Ho$ +^Chi/*Chi$ +^Minh/*Minh$ +^'s/'s$ +^Democratic/Democratic$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^of/of$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^north/north$ +^and/and$ +^Emperor/Emperor$ +^Bao/*Bao$ +^Dai/*Dai$ +^'s/'s$ +^State/State$ +^of/of$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^south/south$ +^./.$ +^A/A$ +^300/300$ +^-/-$ +^day/day$ +^period/period$ +^of/of$ +^free/free$ +^movement/movement$ +^was permitted/be# permitted$ +^,/,$ +^during/during$ +^which/which$ +^almost/almost$ +^a million/a million$ +^northerners/northerner$ +^,/,$ +^mainly/mainly$ +^Catholics/Catholic$ +^,/,$ +^moved/move$ +^south/south$ +^,/,$ +^fearing/fear$ +^persecution/persecution$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^communists/communist$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^partition/partition$ +^of/of$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^was/be$ +^not/not$ +^intended/intend$ +^to/to$ +^be/be$ +^permanent/permanent$ +^by/by$ +^the/the$ +^Geneva/Geneva$ +^Accords/Accord$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^stipulated/stipulate$ +^that/that$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^would/will$ +^be/be$ +^reunited/reunite$ +^after/after$ +^elections/election$ +^in/in$ +^1956/1956$ +^./.$ +^However/However$ +^,/,$ +^in/in$ +^1955/1955$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^State/State$ +^of/of$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^'s/'s$ +^Prime Minister/Prime minister$ +^,/,$ +^Ngo/*Ngo$ +^Dinh/*Dinh$ +^Diem/*Diem$ +^,/,$ +^toppled/*toppled$ +^Bao/*Bao$ +^Dai/*Dai$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^fraudulent/fraudulent$ +^referendum/referendum$ +^organised/organise$ +^by/by$ +^his/prpers$ +^brother/brother$ +^Ngo/*Ngo$ +^Dinh/*Dinh$ +^Nhu/*Nhu$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^proclaimed/proclaim$ +^himself/himself$ +^president/president$ +^of/of$ +^the/the$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^of/of$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^pro/*pro$ +^-/-$ +^Hanoi/Hanoi$ +^Viet/*Viet$ +^Cong/*Cong$ +^began/begin$ +^a/a$ +^guerrilla/guerrilla$ +^campaign/campaign$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^late/late$ +^1950/1950$ +^to/to$ +^overthrow/overthrow$ +^Diem/*Diem$ +^'s/'s$ +^government/government$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^North/North$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^communist/communist$ +^government/government$ +^launched/launch$ +^a/a$ +^land/land$ +^reform/reform$ +^program/program$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^executed/execute$ +^between/between$ +^50,000/50,000$ +^and/and$ +^172,000/172,000$ +^people/person$ +^in/in$ +^campaigns/campaign$ +^against/against$ +^wealthy/wealthy$ +^farmers/farmer$ +^and/and$ +^landowners/*landowners$ +^,/,$ +^amid/amid$ +^broader/broad$ +^purges/purge$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1960/1960$ +^and/and$ +^1962/1962$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^and/and$ +^North/North$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^signed/sign$ +^treaties/treaty$ +^providing/provide$ +^for/for$ +^further/further$ +^Soviet/Soviet$ +^military/military$ +^support/support$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^the/the$ +^South/South$ +^,/,$ +^Diem/*Diem$ +^went/go$ +^about/about$ +^crushing/crush$ +^political/political$ +^and/and$ +^religious/religious$ +^opposition/opposition$ +^,/,$ +^imprisoning/imprison$ +^or/or$ +^executing/execute$ +^tens/ten$ +^of/of$ +^thousands/thousand$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^1963/1963$ +^,/,$ +^Buddhist/Buddhist$ +^discontent/discontent$ +^with/with$ +^Diem/*Diem$ +^'s/'s$ +^regime/regime$ +^erupted/erupt$ +^into/into$ +^mass/mass$ +^demonstrations/demonstration$ +^,/,$ +^leading/lead$ +^to/to$ +^a/a$ +^violent/violent$ +^government/government$ +^crackdown/crackdown$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^led/lead$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^collapse/collapse$ +^of/of$ +^Diem/*Diem$ +^'s/'s$ +^relationship/relationship$ +^with/with$ +^the United States/the United States$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^ultimately/ultimately$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^1963/1963$ +^coup/coup$ +^in/in$ +^which/which$ +^Diem/*Diem$ +^and/and$ +^Nhu/*Nhu$ +^were/be$ +^assassinated/assassinate$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^Diem/*Diem$ +^era/era$ +^was/be$ +^followed/follow$ +^by/by$ +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^a/a$ +^dozen/dozen$ +^successive/successive$ +^military/military$ +^governments/government$ +^,/,$ +^before/before$ +^the/the$ +^pairing/pairing$ +^of/of$ +^Air/Air$ +^Marshal/Marshal$ +^Nguyen/*Nguyen$ +^Cao/*Cao$ +^Ky/*Ky$ +^and/and$ +^General/General$ +^Nguyen/*Nguyen$ +^Van/*Van$ +^Thieu/*Thieu$ +^took/take$ +^control/control$ +^in/in$ +^mid/*mid$ +^-/-$ +^1965/1965$ +^./.$ +^Thieu/*Thieu$ +^gradually/gradually$ +^outmaneuvered/*outmaneuvered$ +^Ky/*Ky$ +^and/and$ +^cemented/*cemented$ +^his/prpers$ +^grip/grip$ +^on/on$ +^power/power$ +^in/in$ +^fraudulent/fraudulent$ +^elections/election$ +^in/in$ +^1967/1967$ +^and/and$ +^1971/1971$ +^./.$ +^Under/Under$ +^this/this$ +^political/political$ +^instability/*instability$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^communists/communist$ +^began/begin$ +^to/to$ +^gain ground/gain# ground$ +^./.$ +^To/To$ +^support/support$ +^South/South$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^'s/'s$ +^struggle/struggle$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^communist/communist$ +^insurgency/*insurgency$ +^,/,$ +^the United States/the United States$ +^began/begin$ +^increasing/increase$ +^its/prpers$ +^contribution/contribution$ +^of/of$ +^military/military$ +^advisers/adviser$ +^,/,$ +^using/use$ +^the/the$ +^1964/1964$ +^Tonkin/*Tonkin$ +^Gulf/Gulf$ +^incident/incident$ +^as/as$ +^a/a$ +^pretext/pretext$ +^for/for$ +^such/such$ +^intervention/intervention$ +^./.$ +^US/US$ +^forces/force$ +^became/become$ +^involved/involve$ +^in/in$ +^ground/ground$ +^combat/combat$ +^operations/operation$ +^in/in$ +^1965/1965$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^at/at$ +^their/prpers$ +^peak/peak$ +^they/prpers$ +^numbered/number$ +^more/more$ +^than/than$ +^500,000/500,000$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^US/US$ +^also/also$ +^engaged/engage$ +^in/in$ +^a/a$ +^sustained/sustain$ +^aerial/aerial$ +^bombing/bomb$ +^campaign/campaign$ +^./.$ +^Meanwhile/Meanwhile$ +^,/,$ +^China/China$ +^and/and$ +^the/the$ +^Soviet Union/Soviet Union$ +^provided/provide$ +^North/North$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^with/with$ +^significant/significant$ +^material/material$ +^aid/aid$ +^and/and$ +^15,000/15,000$ +^combat/combat$ +^advisers/adviser$ +^./.$ +^Communist/Communist$ +^forces/force$ +^supplying/supply$ +^the/the$ +^Vietcong/*Vietcong$ +^carried/carry$ +^supplies/supply$ +^along/along$ +^the/the$ +^Ho/*Ho$ +^Chi/*Chi$ +^Minh/*Minh$ +^trail/trail$ +^,/,$ +^which/which$ +^passed/pass$ +^through/through$ +^Laos/Laos$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^communists/communist$ +^attacked/attack$ +^South/South$ +^Vietnamese/Vietnamese$ +^targets/target$ +^during/during$ +^the/the$ +^1968/1968$ +^Tet/*Tet$ +^Offensive/Offensive$ +^./.$ +^Although/Although$ +^the/the$ +^campaign/campaign$ +^failed/fail$ +^militarily/militarily$ +^,/,$ +^it/prpers$ +^shocked/shock$ +^the/the$ +^American/American$ +^establishment/establishment$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^turned/turn$ +^US/US$ +^public/public$ +^opinion/opinion$ +^against/against$ +^the/the$ +^war/war$ +^./.$ +^Facing/Face$ +^an/a$ +^increasing/increase$ +^casualty/*casualty$ +^count/count$ +^,/,$ +^rising/rise$ +^domestic/domestic$ +^opposition/opposition$ +^to/to$ +^the/the$ +^war/war$ +^,/,$ +^and/and$ +^growing/grow$ +^international/international$ +^condemnation/*condemnation$ +^,/,$ +^the/the$ +^US/US$ +^began/begin$ +^withdrawing/withdraw$ +^from/from$ +^ground/ground$ +^combat/combat$ +^roles/role$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^early/early$ +^1970/1970$ +^./.$ +^This/This$ +^process/process$ +^also/also$ +^entailed/*entailed$ +^an/a$ +^unsuccessful/*unsuccessful$ +^effort/effort$ +^to/to$ +^strengthen/strengthen$ +^and/and$ +^stabilise/stabilise$ +^South/South$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^./.$ +^Following/Follow$ +^the/the$ +^Paris/Paris$ +^Peace/Peace$ +^Accords/Accord$ +^of/of$ +^27/27$ +^January/January$ +^1973/1973$ +^,/,$ +^all/all$ +^American/American$ +^combat/combat$ +^troops/troop$ +^were/be$ +^withdrawn/withdraw$ +^by/by$ +^29/29$ +^March/March$ +^1973/1973$ +^./.$ +^In/In$ +^December/December$ +^1974/1974$ +^,/,$ +^North/North$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^captured/capture$ +^the/the$ +^province/province$ +^of/of$ +^Phuoc/*Phuoc$ +^Long/*Long$ +^and/and$ +^started/start$ +^a/a$ +^full/full$ +^-/-$ +^scale/scale$ +^offensive/offensive$ +^,/,$ +^culminating/culminate$ +^in/in$ +^the/the$ +^Fall/Fall$ +^of/of$ +^Saigon/Saigon$ +^on/on$ +^30/30$ +^April/April$ +^1975/1975$ +^./.$ +^South/South$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^was/be$ +^briefly/briefly$ +^ruled/rule$ +^by/by$ +^a/a$ +^provisional/provisional$ +^government/government$ +^while/while$ +^under/under$ +^military/military$ +^occupation/occupation$ +^by/by$ +^North/North$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^./.$ +^On/On$ +^2/2$ +^July/July$ +^1976/1976$ +^,/,$ +^North/North$ +^and/and$ +^South/South$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^were/be$ +^merged/merge$ +^to/to$ +^form/form$ +^the/the$ +^Socialist/Socialist$ +^Republic/Republic$ +^of/of$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^./.$ +^The/The$ +^war/war$ +^left/leave$ +^Vietnam/Vietnam$ +^devastated/devastate$ +^,/,$ +^with/with$ +^the/the$ +^total/total$ +^death/death$ +^toll/toll$ +^standing/stand$ +^at/at$ +^between/between$ +^800,000/800,000$ +^and/and$ +^3.1/3.1$ +^million/million$ +^./.$ Index: languages/apertium-eng/apertium-eng.eng.rlx =================================================================== --- languages/apertium-eng/apertium-eng.eng.rlx (revision 81256) +++ languages/apertium-eng/apertium-eng.eng.rlx (revision 81259) @@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ LIST Gen = gen ; LIST Apos = apos ; SET Inf = (vblex inf) | (vbmod inf) | (vaux inf) | (vbser inf) | (vbhaver inf) | (vbdo inf) ; +SET Pp = (vblex pp) | (vbmod pp) | (vaux pp) | (vbser pp) | (vbhaver pp) | (vbdo pp) ; LIST Sg = sg ; LIST Pl = pl ; @@ -108,3 +109,8 @@ REMOVE Gen IF (0 Gen) (0 Apos) (NOT -1 ("<.*s>"r)) ; SELECT Gen IF (0 Gen) (0 Vbser) (0 Vbhaver) (-1 N + Pl) ; + +# Have (vblex) and have (vbhaver) +REMOVE Vblex IF (0 Vblex) (0 Vbhaver) (1 Pp) ; +REMOVE Vblex IF (0 Vblex) (0 Vbhaver) (1 Adv) (2 Pp) ; +REMOVE Vblex IF (0 Vblex) (0 Vbhaver) (1 Adv) (2 Adv) (3 Pp) ; Index: languages/apertium-eng/apertium-eng.eng.tsx =================================================================== --- languages/apertium-eng/apertium-eng.eng.tsx (revision 81256) +++ languages/apertium-eng/apertium-eng.eng.tsx (revision 81259) @@ -7,6 +7,9 @@ + + + @@ -28,7 +31,7 @@ - + @@ -95,6 +98,7 @@ + @@ -179,6 +183,11 @@ + + + + + @@ -212,26 +221,21 @@ - + - - - - - @@ -867,6 +871,10 @@ + + + + @@ -1009,4 +1017,5 @@ --> +